| | 
Part, Chapter, Paragraph
1 I, 2. 4 | health-conducive behaviours (e.g. less smoking, modest improvements in
2 II, 4. 2 | life expectancy as well. Smoking related neoplasms had a
3 II, 4. 2 | The negative impact of smoking related cancers for women
4 II, 4. 2 | life expectancy. Whereas smoking related cancer had a negative
5 II, 4. 2 | in the percentage of men smoking since the 1970s, mortality
6 II, 4. 2 | cancer. However, mortality by smoking related cancer continued
7 II, 4. 2 | mortality by cancer is caused by smoking. Mortality by gynaecological
8 II, 4. 2 | related to the decrease in smoking prevalence. Mortality by
9 II, 4. 2 | of circulatory diseases. Smoking has had a negative impact
10 II, 4. 2 | Note that the effect of smoking on mortality is larger than
11 II, 4. 2 | by lung cancer and other smoking related cancers, as smoking
12 II, 4. 2 | smoking related cancers, as smoking also affects mortality by
13 II, 4. 2 | shows that cancers caused by smoking had a negative impact on
14 II, 4. 2 | the negative impact of smoking related cancers reduced
15 II, 4. 2 | the negative effect of smoking related cancers for women
16 II, 4. 2 | For women in the 1990s, smoking related cancers had a negative
17 II, 4. 2 | Table 4.2.5. The effect of smoking related cancers on life
18 II, 5. 1. 1| behavioural risk factors, such as smoking, alcohol use, obesity, excessive
19 II, 5. 1. 1| to unhealthy lifestyle (smoking habit, unhealthy diet, physical
20 II, 5. 1. 1| an example, hypertension, smoking habit and excessive alcohol
21 II, 5. 1. 1| hypertension, diabetes and smoking are crucial to explain differences
22 II, 5. 1. 1| hypercholesterol, obesity, diabetes and smoking habit. Differences exist
23 II, 5. 1. 1| physical activity.~ ~Lung cancer: smoking is a primary cause of lung
24 II, 5. 1. 1| past exposure to tobacco smoking, and the geographic pattern
25 II, 5. 1. 1| different historical patterns of smoking as compare to men (Parkin
26 II, 5. 1. 1| alcohol intake and cigarette smoking, have been found to both
27 II, 5. 1. 1| sensitization; cigarette smoking and tobacco environmental
28 II, 5. 1. 1| Active and passive cigarette smoking, occupational factors and
29 II, 5. 1. 1| risk factors. Cigarette smoking is a major risk factor for
30 II, 5. 1. 1| 2003) showed that age and smoking were the two major risk
31 II, 5. 1. 1| analysis including age, gender, smoking habits, family history of
32 II, 5. 1. 1| odds ratio associated with smoking more than 5 cigarettes per
33 II, 5. 1. 1| lead, cadmium, mercury, smoking and environmental tobacco smoke,
34 II, 5. 2. 2| to unhealthy lifestyle (smoking habit, unhealthy diet, physical
35 II, 5. 2. 2| an example, hypertension, smoking habit and excessive alcohol
36 II, 5. 2. 2| hypertension, diabetes and smoking are crucial to explain differences
37 II, 5. 2. 2| hypercholesterol, obesity, diabetes and smoking habit. Due to differences
38 II, 5. 2. 3| salt and saturated fat, smoking habit) has contributed to
39 II, 5. 2. 3| and vegetables, along with smoking habit and excessive alcohol
40 II, 5. 2. 4| by hypertension, obesity, smoking habit, diabetes and hyperlipidemia.
41 II, 5. 2. 4| physical inactivity and smoking habit.~Some of these risk
42 II, 5. 2. 4| women.~Table 5.2.9 reports smoking habit collected through
43 II, 5. 2. 4| interview surveys. Prevalence of smoking in women is lower except
44 II, 5. 2. 4| trend is changing. In men, smoking is generally higher in Southern,
45 II, 5. 2. 4| Estimated prevalence of smoking habit in 27 EU countries
46 II, 5. 2. 4| classical risk factors’ such as smoking, hypertension, hyperlipidemia,
47 II, 5. 2. 4| Table 5.2.11. Prevalence of smoking (%), mean values of systolic
48 II, 5. 2. 4| lipids, and around 30% to smoking and that smokers and former
49 II, 5. 2. 4| regards to the prevalence of smoking and obesity.~ ~
50 II, 5. 2. 5| of decisions such as stop smoking, adopting healthy diet and
51 II, 5. 2. 5| major risk factors, mainly smoking, whereas treatment of individuals
52 II, 5. 2. 5| assessment, based on age, sex, smoking habit, systolic blood pressure,
53 II, 5. 2. 5| improvements were documented in smoking, cholesterol and blood pressure.
54 II, 5. 2. 6| that risk factors such as smoking habit, cholesterol, blood
55 II, 5. 2. 6| first steps is to reduce smoking among men and prevent increase
56 II, 5. 2. 6| women as health benefits of smoking cessation occur faster for
57 II, 5. 2. 6| that prevent and reduce smoking may bring immediate and
58 II, 5. 3. 4| physical activity.~ ~Lung cancer: smoking is a primary cause of lung
59 II, 5. 3. 4| past exposure to tobacco smoking, and the geographic pattern
60 II, 5. 3. 4| different historical patterns of smoking compared to men (Parkin
61 II, 5. 3. 7| health. The cessation of smoking, avoidance of harmful alcohol
62 II, 5. 4. 2| topics e.g. heavy drinking, smoking etc. The usual recommendation
63 II, 5. 4. 2| diabetic subjects who are smoking~14~Percent of diabetic subjects
64 II, 5. 4. 2| pressure above 140 mm Hg.~Smoking is defined as any type of
65 II, 5. 4. 2| is defined as any type of smoking and relates to the percentage
66 II, 5. 4. 3| the higher the percentage.~Smoking. Crude percentages from
67 II, 5. 4. 6| how much;~· how to quit smoking; and~· how to deal with
68 II, 5. 5. 2| alcohol intake and cigarette smoking, have been found to both
69 II, 5. 5. 3| physical activity, increased rate of smoking, etc. –, the high rate of
70 II, 5. 5. 3| acting early in life, such as smoking.~ ~
71 II, 5. 5. 3| British doctors in relation to smoking: observation on coronary
72 II, 5. 5. 3| a general agreement that smoking and exposure to pesticide
73 II, 5. 5. 3| Lifestyle factors such as smoking cigarettes have been consistently
74 II, 5. 5. 3| truly caused by cigarette smoking, or may reflect confounding
75 II, 5. 5. 3| behaviour associated with smoking is not known. In an American
76 II, 5. 5. 3| the history of cigarette smoking and alcohol use in 144 PD
77 II, 5. 5. 3| CC, Peterson EL (1999): Smoking and Parkinson’s disease:
78 II, 5. 5. 3| at: htt f.~Quik M (2004): Smoking, nicotine and Parkinson’
79 II, 5. 6. 3| between osteoarthritis and smoking (Felson et al, 1996).~ ~
80 II, 5. 6. 3| the epidemiology of RA. Smoking and obesity are also risk
81 II, 5. 6. 3| family history of fractures, smoking, heavy alcohol consumption,
82 II, 5. 6. 3| with age, physical fitness, smoking, excess body weight and
83 II, 5. 6. 5| alcohol excess, of tobacco smoking, etc.~ ~ ~
84 II, 5. 8. 1| active and passive tobacco smoking, occupational factors and
85 II, 5. 8. 3| the larger spread of the smoking habit and the fact that,
86 II, 5. 8. 3| track several decades behind smoking trends. Trends in age-standardized
87 II, 5. 8. 3| authors stated that, although smoking is a well-known risk factor
88 II, 5. 8. 3| other factors in addition to smoking.~ ~In another study, Gudmundsson
89 II, 5. 8. 4| Active and passive tobacco smoking are major risk factors for
90 II, 5. 8. 4| the decreasing duration of smoking.~ ~A comparison of results
91 II, 5. 8. 4| correlation of COPD with the smoking habit is presented in Figure
92 II, 5. 8. 4| Incidence rates of COPD and smoking habit in Nordic European
93 II, 5. 8. 4| 2003) showed that age and smoking were the two major determinants,
94 II, 5. 8. 4| analysis including age, gender, smoking habits, family history of
95 II, 5. 8. 4| odds ratio associated with smoking more than 5 cigarettes per
96 II, 5. 8. 4| chronic bronchitis from smoking by 160%. Neither a steeper
97 II, 5. 8. 5| focus on the prevention of smoking uptake, and on improved
98 II, 5. 8. 5| strengthening interventions to stop smoking. Cessation of smoking is
99 II, 5. 8. 5| stop smoking. Cessation of smoking is associated with a return
100 II, 5. 8. 5| During the first year after smoking cessation, patients showed
101 II, 5. 8. 5| year old smokers with a smoking history of 10+ pack-years (
102 II, 5. 8. 5| intervention, the validated smoking cessation rate in patients
103 II, 5. 8. 7| limitation combined with smoking cessation advice increases
104 II, 5. 8. 7| attributable fraction of smoking Report from the Obstructive
105 II, 5. 8. 7| and the relationship with smoking cigarettes. Eur J Epidemiol
106 II, 5. 9. FB| infancy, because maternal smoking during pregnancy is significantly
107 II, 5. 9. 4| sensitization;~2. cigarette smoking and tobacco environmental
108 II, 5. 9. 4| of the harmful effects of smoking in the EU. Tobacco exposure,
109 II, 5. 9. 5| sensitization;~· cigarette smoking and tobacco environmental
110 II, 5. 14. 5| prevention~ ~For the control of smoking see Chapter 8; for the control
111 II, 8. 2. 1| conditions of the mothers and to smoking during pregnancy. Other
112 II, 9 | variation in both groups.~ ~Smoking during pregnancy. The harmful
113 II, 9 | The harmful effects of smoking on perinatal outcomes, in
114 II, 9 | s long-term development. Smoking cessation may be the most
115 II, 9 | deprivation scores. The rate of smoking among women of childbearing
116 II, 9 | monitoring the impact of smoking on perinatal outcomes, however,
117 II, 9 | because many women stop smoking during pregnancy, as shown
118 II, 9 | EUROPERISTAT project on smoking during pregnancy. In the
119 II, 9 | the proportion of women smoking during pregnancy varies
120 II, 9 | Figure 9.T1.3. Rates of Smoking Among all Women 25-34 vs
121 II, 9 | coexisting risk factors such as smoking, alcohol, poor nutrition
122 II, 9 | Ozanne et al, 2004).~ ~Smoking. Smoking is argued to be
123 II, 9 | et al, 2004).~ ~Smoking. Smoking is argued to be driven predominantly
124 II, 9 | diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoking, inadequate physical activity,
125 II, 9 | hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking, obesity, and sedentary
126 II, 9 | antihypertensive medications.~ ~Smoking is a primary cause of lung
127 II, 9 | life style. Inactivity and smoking, and to a lesser extent
128 II, 9 | lifestyle behaviours of smoking, having a low-quality diet,
129 II, 9 | programmes which encourage smoking cessation and the reduction
130 II, 9 | Healthy Ageing, 2007).~ ~Smoking. The acceleration in decline
131 II, 9 | be reversible at any age. Smoking cessation and small increases
132 II, 9. 1. 1| Boulton ML (1999): Effects of smoking during pregnancy. Five meta-analyses.
133 II, 9. 1. 1| 2004): The epidemiology of smoking during pregnancy: smoking
134 II, 9. 1. 1| smoking during pregnancy: smoking prevalence, maternal characteristics,
135 II, 9. 1. 1| Effect of age, parity, and smoking on pregnancy outcome: a
136 II, 9. 1. 1| maternal age, parity, and smoking on the risk of stillbirth.
137 II, 9. 1. 1| Rosenberg MJ, Sachs BP (1986): Smoking and reproduction. Fertil
138 II, 9. 1. 2| variation in both groups.~ ~Smoking during pregnancy. The harmful
139 II, 9. 1. 2| The harmful effects of smoking on perinatal outcomes, in
140 II, 9. 1. 2| s long-term development. Smoking cessation may be the most
141 II, 9. 1. 2| deprivation scores. The rate of smoking among women of childbearing
142 II, 9. 1. 2| monitoring the impact of smoking on perinatal outcomes, however,
143 II, 9. 1. 2| because many women stop smoking during pregnancy, as shown
144 II, 9. 1. 2| EUROPERISTAT project on smoking during pregnancy. In the
145 II, 9. 1. 2| the proportion of women smoking during pregnancy varies
146 II, 9. 1. 2| Figure 9.T1.3. Rates of Smoking Among all Women 25-34 vs
147 II, 9. 1. 2| coexisting risk factors such as smoking, alcohol, poor nutrition
148 II, 9. 1. 2| alcohol, recreational drugs, smoking and obesity, are also risk
149 II, 9. 2. 4| Ozanne et al, 2004).~ ~Smoking. Smoking is argued to be
150 II, 9. 2. 4| et al, 2004).~ ~Smoking. Smoking is argued to be driven predominantly
151 II, 9. 3. 1| cancer, suicide, addiction to smoking and alcohol, and overweight
152 II, 9. 3. 1| relation is for cigarette smoking, which advances menopause
153 II, 9. 3. 1| largely associated to tobacco smoking, causes 35% of all deaths
154 II, 9. 3. 1| increases with age in women. Smoking is the most prevalent risk
155 II, 9. 3. 1| health than that posed by smoking (WHO, 2003).~ ~The Obesity
156 II, 9. 3. 1| preserving oral bone include smoking cessation and oral hygiene
157 II, 9. 3. 1| or abuse habits, such as smoking or alcohol, greatly affect
158 II, 9. 3. 1| diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoking, inadequate physical activity,
159 II, 9. 3. 1| hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking, obesity, and sedentary
160 II, 9. 3. 1| antihypertensive medications.~ ~Smoking is a primary cause of lung
161 II, 9. 3. 2| rate, maternal age, parity, smoking and maternal education.
162 II, 9. 3. 2| We also present data on smoking among women of reproductive
163 II, 9. 3. 2| with data from 2000 on smoking among pregnant women collected
164 II, 9. 3. 2| Boulton ML (1999): Effects of smoking during pregnancy. Five meta-analyses.
165 II, 9. 3. 2| Effect of age, parity, and smoking on pregnancy outcome: a
166 II, 9. 3. 2| 2004): The epidemiology of smoking during pregnancy: smoking
167 II, 9. 3. 2| smoking during pregnancy: smoking prevalence, maternal characteristics,
168 II, 9. 3. 2| maternal age, parity, and smoking on the risk of stillbirth.
169 II, 9. 3. 2| Rosenberg MJ, Sachs BP (1986): Smoking and reproduction. Fertil
170 II, 9. 4. 2| issues and older people (e.g. smoking, sexual health etc.) The
171 II, 9. 4. 4| life style. Inactivity and smoking, and to a lesser extent
172 II, 9. 4. 4| lifestyle behaviours of smoking, having a low-quality diet,
173 II, 9. 4. 4| programmes which encourage smoking cessation and the reduction
174 II, 9. 4. 4| Healthy Ageing, 2007).~ ~Smoking. The acceleration in decline
175 II, 9. 4. 4| be reversible at any age. Smoking cessation and small increases
176 II, 9. 5. 1| heavily by a decline in smoking in the last quarter of the
177 II, 9. 5. 1| of the twentieth century. Smoking has been identified as a
178 II, 9. 5. 1| men and are slower to quit smoking, women’s smoking rates continue
179 II, 9. 5. 1| to quit smoking, women’s smoking rates continue to rise in
180 II, 9. 5. 3| behaviours: the more advanced the smoking epidemic curve in a country,
181 II, 9. 5. 3| curve in a country, the more smoking is concentrated among the
182 II, 9. 5. 3| drink weekly (%)~ ~Tobacco smoking~ ~Women are more likely
183 II, 9. 5. 3| likely than men to take up smoking as a means of weight control,
184 II, 9. 5. 3| control, and to continue smoking, rather than risk putting
185 II, 9. 5. 3| are more likely to begin smoking again while feeling sad
186 II, 9. 5. 3| correspondingly higher levels of smoking related health problems.~ ~
187 II, 9. 5. 3| Percentage of Female Adults Smoking in 1985 and 2002-2003~ ~
188 II, 9. 5. 3| The issues around quitting smoking are complex. Evaluations
189 II, 9. 5. 3| important gender differences in smoking behaviour. About nine out
190 II, 9. 5. 3| before they are 18 years old. Smoking is driven predominantly
191 II, 9. 5. 3| are more likely to start smoking earlier than girls, smoking
192 II, 9. 5. 3| smoking earlier than girls, smoking rates for girls are overtaking
193 II, 9. 5. 3| fail at attempts to stop smoking, tend to have lower education
194 II, 9. 5. 3| levels than women who quit smoking. They smoke a higher number
195 II, 9. 5. 3| less social support to stop smoking, are less confident in resisting
196 II, 9. 5. 3| cognitively less ready to stop smoking (CDC, 2001). There is some
197 II, 9. 5. 3| programmes to control adolescent smoking, in particular for adolescent
198 II, 9. 5. 3| adolescent girls, as their smoking behaviour may influence
199 II, 9. 5. 3| The interaction between smoking and oral contraceptives
200 II, 9. 5. 3| affect reproductive health. Smoking in young women may therefore
201 II, 9. 5. 4| health determinants (alcohol, smoking, obesity) and major disease
202 II, 9. 5. 6| relapse in attempts to quit smoking. Addictive Behaviours; 15:
203 II, 9. 5. 6| CDC) (2001): Women and Smoking – A Report of the Surgeon
204 III, 10. 1 | PM), mainly PM2.5 or less~smoking and environmental tobacco smoke (
205 III, 10. 1 | carbon monoxide, ozon, PM)~smoking and ETS~carbon monoxide~
206 III, 10. 1 | diseases, including asthma~smoking and ETS~sulphur dioxide~
207 III, 10. 1 | disorders~lead~mercury~smoking and ETS~cadmium~some pesticides~
208 III, 10. 1. 1| factors such as policies on smoking (e.g. age limits, public
209 III, 10. 1. 1| e.g. age limits, public smoking, advertising), peer and
210 III, 10. 1. 1| public opinion towards smoking, and social norms (e.g.
211 III, 10. 1. 1| and social norms (e.g. smoking during pregnancy, smoking
212 III, 10. 1. 1| smoking during pregnancy, smoking after delivery, social disapproval).
213 III, 10. 1. 1| second hand smoke and active smoking are closely linked. Parents’
214 III, 10. 1. 1| closely linked. Parents’ smoking is a powerful influence
215 III, 10. 1. 1| powerful influence on the smoking behaviour of their children:
216 III, 10. 2. 1| Acronyms~ ~ASH~Action on Smoking and Health: ASH UK~COPD~
217 III, 10. 2. 1| ENSP~European Network for Smoking Prevention~EU-27~The 27
218 III, 10. 2. 1| epidemic in the 20th century.~ ~Smoking is the largest single cause
219 III, 10. 2. 1| disease in Europe. Active smoking kills over 650,000 people
220 III, 10. 2. 1| most European countries smoking is prevalent among lower
221 III, 10. 2. 1| European youth has the highest smoking prevalence rates in the
222 III, 10. 2. 1| world.~ ~The patterns of smoking attributable mortality are
223 III, 10. 2. 1| mortality are indicative of smoking trends two to three decades
224 III, 10. 2. 1| to three decades ago. The smoking attributable mortality in
225 III, 10. 2. 1| among females.~ ~Cigarette smoking harms nearly every organ
226 III, 10. 2. 1| of deaths attributed to smoking. Moreover, smoking harms
227 III, 10. 2. 1| attributed to smoking. Moreover, smoking harms the society. In the
228 III, 10. 2. 1| the society. In the EU, smoking is one of the preventable
229 III, 10. 2. 1| put the costs for only two smoking related diseases (COPD and
230 III, 10. 2. 1| interventions geared at smoking behaviour will determine
231 III, 10. 2. 1| on the adverse effects of smoking, induce individual cessation
232 III, 10. 2. 1| the youth from taking up smoking. Individual interventions,
233 III, 10. 2. 1| probability of long term smoking cessation.~ ~As shown in
234 III, 10. 2. 1| 1.1. Diseases caused by smoking and by second-hand smoke~
235 III, 10. 2. 1| 2006)~ ~Diseases caused by smoking~Diseases caused by second-hand
236 III, 10. 2. 1| caused by active cigarette smoking.~ ~ ~Cancers~Respiratory
237 III, 10. 2. 1| Peripheral arterial disease~ ~Smoking in pregnancy~- Pregnancy
238 III, 10. 2. 1| childhood asthma~Passive smoking and children:~- Sudden infant
239 III, 10. 2. 1| indicators pertaining to smoking are the prevalence of smoking
240 III, 10. 2. 1| smoking are the prevalence of smoking and the smoking-attributable
241 III, 10. 2. 1| data sources concerning smoking prevalence and mortality
242 III, 10. 2. 1| WHO-HFA database, the adult smoking prevalence is assessed from
243 III, 10. 2. 1| survey instrument to measure smoking habits in a population,
244 III, 10. 2. 1| standardization in the measurement of smoking habits in health interview
245 III, 10. 2. 1| methods.”~Mortality from smoking in developed countries is
246 III, 10. 2. 1| Prevalence and mortality~ ~Smoking prevalence varies widely
247 III, 10. 2. 1| Despite wide variations in smoking prevalence among member
248 III, 10. 2. 1| and lower prevalence of smoking in Southern and Northern,
249 III, 10. 2. 1| that the differences in smoking prevalence for men and women
250 III, 10. 2. 1| illustrate the trends in smoking prevalence among European
251 III, 10. 2. 1| than women are dying from smoking attributable diseases in
252 III, 10. 2. 1| all deaths attributable to smoking in 2000~ ~The proportion
253 III, 10. 2. 1| of deaths attributed to smoking is presented in Table 10.
254 III, 10. 2. 1| causes (%), attributable to smoking, all ages, year 2000~ ~Smoking,
255 III, 10. 2. 1| smoking, all ages, year 2000~ ~Smoking, along with other behavioural
256 III, 10. 2. 1| Overall, the proportion of smoking attributable deaths among
257 III, 10. 2. 1| mortality data today reflect the smoking prevalence of two to three
258 III, 10. 2. 1| more men are dying from smoking attributable diseases in
259 III, 10. 2. 1| Figure 10.2.1.1.5. Trends in smoking attributable mortality 1965-
260 III, 10. 2. 1| followed by similar patterns in smoking attributable mortality two
261 III, 10. 2. 1| harmful effects of tobacco smoking was low until the late 1980s.
262 III, 10. 2. 1| three of the epidemic, with smoking prevalence among males peaking
263 III, 10. 2. 1| beginning to decline, and smoking prevalence among women still
264 III, 10. 2. 1| and female prevalence of smoking between 2000 and 2003, while
265 III, 10. 2. 1| mainly due to the decrease of smoking in the male population between
266 III, 10. 2. 1| socio-economic status as smoking determinants~ ~Men generally
267 III, 10. 2. 1| more women are taking up smoking, this trend is not likely
268 III, 10. 2. 1| likely to reverse. The female smoking rates in some countries
269 III, 10. 2. 1| trend: the difference in smoking rates between boys and girls
270 III, 10. 2. 1| highest incidence of youth smoking in the world. Nearly 18%
271 III, 10. 2. 1| al, 2006).~ ~During the smoking epidemic there is a reversal
272 III, 10. 2. 1| socio-economic status and smoking. For what concern the socio-economic
273 III, 10. 2. 1| al, 2000):~· In stage 1, smoking is an exceptional behavior
274 III, 10. 2. 1| socio-economic groups;~· In stage 2, smoking becomes increasingly common.
275 III, 10. 2. 1| years behind those of men. Smoking is first adopted by women
276 III, 10. 2. 1| 40% since many men stop smoking, especially those with a
277 III, 10. 2. 1| both men and women, and smoking becomes progressively more
278 III, 10. 2. 1| groups.~ ~In most countries smoking is more prevalent among
279 III, 10. 2. 1| stages.~Social gradients in smoking prevalence are steeper for
280 III, 10. 2. 1| These steeper gradients of smoking prevalence are likely to
281 III, 10. 2. 1| into steeper gradients in smoking attributable morbidity and
282 III, 10. 2. 1| 2000).~ ~Consequences of smoking for the individual and the
283 III, 10. 2. 1| individual and the society~ ~Smoking harms virtually every organ
284 III, 10. 2. 1| sexes (see Chapter 5.2.). Smoking contributes significantly
285 III, 10. 2. 1| cancers are mainly due to smoking (European Communities, 2002).~
286 III, 10. 2. 1| country and is influenced by smoking, as well as by other factors.
287 III, 10. 2. 1| well as by other factors. Smoking is, according to the estimates
288 III, 10. 2. 1| Not only active smoking, but also passive inhalation
289 III, 10. 2. 1| EU as a result of passive smoking (ERS 6; European Commission,
290 III, 10. 2. 1| European Community of passive smoking in nonsmokers was 17.9%
291 III, 10. 2. 1| the prevalence of passive smoking at home had declined by
292 III, 10. 2. 1| the prevalence of passive smoking at work decreased by 10.
293 III, 10. 2. 1| such as restrictions of smoking in the workplace and other
294 III, 10. 2. 1| The economic burden of smoking probably exceeds 1% of GDP
295 III, 10. 2. 1| nursing home services) for smoking related diseases among smokers
296 III, 10. 2. 1| of human capital due to smoking attributable premature deaths,
297 III, 10. 2. 1| two leading categories of smoking related diseases: COPD and
298 III, 10. 2. 1| GDP. The indirect costs of smoking account for two thirds of
299 III, 10. 2. 1| underlying the regular, daily smoking is nicotine addiction. Cigarette
300 III, 10. 2. 1| burned incompletely during smoking, almost 4000 chemicals can
301 III, 10. 2. 1| much longer time than after smoking. The average snuff dipper
302 III, 10. 2. 1| to be less harmful than smoking tobacco. An incomplete tobacco
303 III, 10. 2. 1| combustion that occurs during smoking releases 4000 chemical substances.
304 III, 10. 2. 1| An individual approach to smoking cessation includes pharmacotherapy
305 III, 10. 2. 1| of smokers manage to quit smoking using will power alone (ASH,
306 III, 10. 2. 1| countries to help patients stop smoking. Bupropion is an antidepressant
307 III, 10. 2. 1| eliminates the reward from smoking.~ ~Certain moods, times
308 III, 10. 2. 1| is not a cure for these smoking triggers. Furthermore, the
309 III, 10. 2. 1| the motivation to quit smoking determines the success rate
310 III, 10. 2. 1| determines the success rate of smoking cessation to a large extent.
311 III, 10. 2. 1| environmental tobacco smoke (smoking bans in public places);~·
312 III, 10. 2. 1| Europe-wide and cross-national smoking prevention and cessation
313 III, 10. 2. 1| Plan through which passive smoking is now more actively tackled.~
314 III, 10. 2. 1| action, including a range of smoking prevention and cessation
315 III, 10. 2. 1| Recommendation on the prevention of smoking and on initiatives to improve
316 III, 10. 2. 1| a Resolution on banning smoking in public places. Since
317 III, 10. 2. 1| greatest impact, followed by smoking bans in workplaces and public
318 III, 10. 2. 1| for those wanting to quit smoking complete the six effective
319 III, 10. 2. 1| key measures that reduce smoking rates. The report also reveals
320 III, 10. 2. 1| of countries still allow smoking in hospitals and schools;~·
321 III, 10. 2. 1| undisputed that the low smoking prevalence, and consequently,
322 III, 10. 2. 1| used as a substitute for smoking and for smoking cessation.
323 III, 10. 2. 1| substitute for smoking and for smoking cessation. Smokers who will
324 III, 10. 2. 1| will not or cannot quit smoking should not be withheld a
325 III, 10. 2. 1| role as an aid for quitting smoking. Results from different
326 III, 10. 2. 1| between snuff use and quitting smoking. Other factors, such as
327 III, 10. 2. 1| male population – female smoking rates are still relatively
328 III, 10. 2. 1| extrapolate future patterns of smoking or oral tobacco prevalence
329 III, 10. 2. 1| support the use of STP as a smoking cessation aid. Furthermore,
330 III, 10. 2. 1| progression from STP into and from smoking differ between countries;
331 III, 10. 2. 1| three TCS subscales: the smoking bans in public places, the
332 III, 10. 2. 1| should include a total ban on smoking in work and public places,
333 III, 10. 2. 1| made in tobacco control, smoking continues to be the largest
334 III, 10. 2. 1| tobacco advertising and its smoking rates exceed those of their
335 III, 10. 2. 1| tobacco-related harm.~ ~Smoking is almost invariably more
336 III, 10. 2. 1| the harmful effects of smoking add to their existing disproportionate
337 III, 10. 2. 1| Mackenbach et al, 2004).~ ~Smoking epidemic is man-made and
338 III, 10. 2. 1| most impact, followed by smoking bans in workplaces and public
339 III, 10. 2. 1| for those wanting to quit smoking (6) complete the six effective
340 III, 10. 2. 1| ASPECT, 2005). The ban on smoking in public places that include
341 III, 10. 2. 1| References~ ~Action on smoking and health (ASH) (2007):
342 III, 10. 2. 1| health (ASH) (2007): Stopping smoking: the benefits and aids to
343 III, 10. 2. 1| Educational differences in smoking: international comparison.
344 III, 10. 2. 1| The Health Consequences of Smoking [on-line publication available
345 III, 10. 2. 1| European Opinion Research Group Smoking and the Environment (EEIG,
346 III, 10. 2. 1| pdf~ ~European Network for Smoking Prevention (ENSP) (2003):
347 III, 10. 2. 1| Changes in active and passive smoking in the European Community
348 III, 10. 2. 1| Socioeconomic inequalities in smoking in the European Union: applying
349 III, 10. 2. 1| M (2005) Mortality From Smoking In Developed Countries 1950-
350 III, 10. 2. 1| impact of advertising on smoking and eating behaviour. It
351 III, 10. 2. 1| properties of the substances, smoking, snorting, swallowing and/
352 III, 10. 2. 1| common-risk factors – e.g. diet, smoking, alcohol, stress improvements –
353 III, 10. 2. 1| common-risk factors – e.g. diet, smoking, alcohol, stress improvements –
354 III, 10. 2. 1| physical activity, stress, smoking and alcohol consumption
355 III, 10. 2. 1| health promotion (e.g. those concerning smoking, physical activity and alcohol
356 III, 10. 2. 4| APOE polymorphisms with smoking and alcohol on the risk
357 III, 10. 2. 4| especially in women) with smoking on the risk of multiple
358 III, 10. 2. 4| such as food labelling, smoking, advertisement, toxic products (“
359 III, 10. 2. 5| indicator “Pregnant women smoking”, but data collection has
360 III, 10. 2. 5| diabetes or even maternal smoking. Longitudinal data from
361 III, 10. 2. 5| Europe indicate that maternal smoking during pregnancy is also
362 III, 10. 2. 5| foetal nutrition and reduce smoking, and interventions to support
363 III, 10. 2. 5| antenatal exposure to maternal smoking on behaviournal problems
364 III, 10. 2. 5| Vik T (2007): Prenatal smoking exposure and psychiatric
365 III, 10. 3. 1| radon daughter exposure and smoking is multiplicative (for the
366 III, 10. 3. 1| exposed workers). This makes smoking of utmost importance in
367 III, 10. 3. 1| to exposure to radon and smoking in a case-control study
368 III, 10. 3. 2| PM), mainly PM2.5 or less~smoking and environmental tobacco smoke (
369 III, 10. 3. 2| carbon monoxide, ozon, PM)~smoking and ETS~carbon monoxide~
370 III, 10. 3. 2| diseases, including asthma~smoking and ETS~sulphur dioxide~
371 III, 10. 3. 2| disorders~lead~mercury~smoking and ETS~cadmium~some pesticides~
372 III, 10. 4. 1| activities and habits, such as smoking, cooking and the use of
373 III, 10. 5. 1| volatile again. In addition, smoking or keeping pets in the home
374 III, 10. 5. 1| indoor sources (such as smoking, open fire etc.), around
375 III, 10. 5. 2| 2004).~ ~For what concerns smoking, as one of the most important
376 III, 10. 5. 2| from Germany suggests that smoking is more spread within urbanized
377 III, 10. 5. 2| Urban-rural disparities in smoking behaviour in Germany. BMC
378 III, 10. 6. 2| being breast fed. Later on, smoking, physical inactivity, unfavourable
379 III, 10. 6. 2| health-conducive behaviours (e.g. less smoking, modest improvements in
380 IV, 11. 2. 2| campaigns on alcohol abuse and smoking. It is important to exercise
381 IV, 12. 2 | improvements were documented in smoking, cholesterol and blood pressure.
382 IV, 12. 2 | related to lifestyles (mainly smoking, diet and physical activity
383 IV, 12. 2 | An individual approach to smoking cessation includes pharmacotherapy
384 IV, 12. 2 | of smokers manage to quit smoking using will power alone.
385 IV, 12. 2 | countries to help patients stop smoking. Bupropion is an antidepressant
386 IV, 12. 2 | eliminates the reward from smoking.~ ~Certain moods, times
387 IV, 12. 2 | is not a cure for these smoking triggers. Furthermore, the
388 IV, 12. 2 | the motivation to quit smoking determines the success rate
389 IV, 12. 2 | determines the success rate of smoking cessation to a large extent.
390 IV, 12. 2 | environmental tobacco smoke (smoking bans in public places);~·
391 IV, 12. 2 | Europe-wide and cross-national smoking prevention and cessation
392 IV, 12. 2 | Plan, through which passive smoking is now more actively tackled.~
393 IV, 12. 2 | action, including a range of smoking prevention and cessation
394 IV, 12. 2 | Recommendation on the prevention of smoking and on initiatives to improve
395 IV, 12. 2 | a Resolution on banning smoking in public places. Since
396 IV, 12. 2 | key measures that reduce smoking rates. The report also reveals
397 IV, 12. 2 | of countries still allow smoking in hospitals and schools;~
398 IV, 12. 2 | impact of advertising on smoking and eating behaviour. It
399 IV, 12. 4 | information campaigns on smoking (funded up to 2008)~AIDCO~
400 IV, 12. 10 | programmes on citizen empowerment~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~High ~
401 IV, 12. 10 | demand, activity and effect.~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~ high~
402 IV, 12. 10 | Environments Act permits smoking indoor at small hospitality
403 IV, 12. 10 | Environments Act permits a smoking booth or alike. ~ ~Act No
404 IV, 12. 10 | A N D A D V I C E~about smoking and stopping~http df~Alcohol
405 IV, 12. 10 | Health-related behaviours ~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~High
406 IV, 12. 10 | federal) laws e. g. against smoking at public places and work
407 IV, 12. 10 | focus of activities is on smoking, other forms of tobacco
408 IV, 12. 10 | non-smoker protection act (smoking ban at public institutions,
409 IV, 12. 10 | states passed laws banning smoking at schools, bars and restaurants (
410 IV, 12. 10 | population attributable smoking rates by several national
411 IV, 12. 10 | concerning health consequences of smoking on cigarette packages, signs
412 IV, 12. 10 | Health-related behaviours~ ~ ~ ~ ~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~High~
413 IV, 12. 10 | Children examined the issue of smoking and health (1999 & 2001).~
414 IV, 12. 10 | Health-related behaviours~ ~ ~ ~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~ High~·
415 IV, 12. 10 | 2002) and 82942 (12-9-2003) smoking is forbidden in all public
416 IV, 12. 10 | framework of law allows specific smoking areas.~· The Common Ministerial
417 IV, 12. 10 | programmes on citizen empowerment~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~ high~
418 IV, 12. 10 | Decree 15/1/2006 banning smoking in public place~Increasing
419 IV, 12. 10 | Health-related behaviours~ ~ ~ ~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~ High~
420 IV, 12. 10 | implemented in January 2005): smoking ban in all public places.~
421 IV, 12. 10 | behaviours~ ~ www.sva.gov.lv~ ~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~ high~
422 IV, 12. 10 | conditions favourable to health.~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~ High~
423 IV, 12. 10 | protection from passive smoking, reinforces measures against
424 IV, 12. 10 | creates consultations for smoking cessation in the National
425 IV, 12. 10 | on prevention of passive smoking;~Training courses for health
426 IV, 12. 10 | health professionals on smoking cessation (last 3 years);~
427 IV, 12. 10 | Health-related behaviours~ ~ ~ ~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~ high~
428 IV, 12. 10 | reduction of tobacco use and for smoking cease;~ ~Law 433/11/2006,
429 IV, 12. 10 | Act on Measures to Reduce Smoking~In 2005 the government issued
430 IV, 12. 10 | the employees from passive smoking. As of June 1, smoking in
431 IV, 12. 10 | passive smoking. As of June 1, smoking in restaurants, cafeterias,
432 IV, 12. 10 | especially dedicated for smoking only and only if smoke does
433 IV, 12. 10 | other activities beyond smoking are allowed in those special
434 IV, 12. 10 | the employers from passive smoking during their working hours,
435 IV, 12. 10 | customers too and may reduce smoking also more generally due
436 IV, 12. 10 | alcohol, illicit drugs and smoking. As part of healthy environment
437 IV, 12. 10 | programmes on citizen empowerment~Smoking and tobacco snuff use~ High~
438 IV, 13. 2. 2| European Region.~· Tobacco smoking is the single most preventable
439 IV, 13. 2. 3| similar to that caused by smoking. The theoretical health
440 IV, 13. 2. 3| life-style factors combined (2) ,~Smoking~ ~Cardiovascular diseases,
441 IV, 13. 2. 3| micro-organisms in food~ ~ ~Passive Smoking~Upper respiratory tract
442 IV, 13. 2. 3| the combined effects of smoking, lack of physical activity
443 IV, 13. 2. 4| European Union (Table 13.6) are smoking, having a high blood pressure,
444 Key, Ap5. 0. 0| Slovenia~smallpox~smokers~smoking~socio-cultural~socio-economic~
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