10.3.2. Chemical agents
Acronyms
10.3.2.1.
Introduction
Chemicals, natural and man-made, are an integral part of
our natural and urban environment. The chemical industry provides major
contributions to our economic wealth and individual comfort. Europe has a 59%
share of world exports and 48.4% of world imports. The European chemical
industry is the fourth most important industrial group with respect to economic
turn-over. European legislation is distinguishing between different groups of
chemicals; industrial chemicals, agrochemicals (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides),
biocides and pharmaceuticals. This chapter mainly deals with industrial
chemicals but in some instances reference is also made to the other groups. In
general, the production of toxic chemicals has increased at almost the same
rate as the overall chemical production.
The chemical industry has been growing
worldwide and is economically significant in the EU. The production of toxic
chemicals has increased at almost the same rate as the total chemical
production, and both have grown faster than the GDP. The economic cost of late
action — both in terms of remediation of contaminated sites and health impacts
— can be high. Implementation of the new EU legislation on the Registration,
Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) is estimated to result in
benefits 2 to 50 times higher than the costs.
Emissions and release of chemicals are not only closely
linked to industrial activities in the chemical industry, but also to the use
of chemicals in downstream sectors and by the general public. Man-made or
industrial chemical substances can be released during every stage of their
lifecycle from production (or import) and processing through manufacturing and
use (industrial and consumer) to disposal. This can lead to gross pollution
(poorly managed industries, contaminated sites, and accidents) as well as
diffused releases causing long-term exposure to low levels of chemical
mixtures. For substances used in long life articles or construction materials,
emissions related to the waste life stage can take place several decades after
production and processing of a substance. This is one reason why some
substances are still found in the environment or in human tissue even decades
after their use has ceased.
The public health relevance of the use of chemicals is
extremely difficult to assess, considering both confirmed and perceived impact.
The WHO estimates that over 30% of the global burden of disease can be
attributed to environmental factors. While currently much of this burden is
caused by “traditional” risk factors such as poor sanitation, contaminated food
and infectious diseases, the WHO recently concluded that “emerging” and
“modern” risks pose an increasing health threat, particularly to children. The
threats include exposure to natural or human-made toxic substances in air,
water, soil and within the food-chain, inadequate toxic waste disposal,
injuries and poisonings, urbanization,and environmental degradation associated
with unsustainable patterns of consumption and development. More recently
emerging environmental hazards, such as transboundary contamination by
persistent toxic substances, ozone depletion, global climate change and
exposure to chemicals that disrupt endocrine function have been identified as
potential risks to children’s health at global level(WHO, 2006). The child-focused EU SCALE process (Science,
Children, Awareness-raising, Legal instruments, Evaluation) has initially
identified four priority groups of diseases: childhood cancer, childhood
respiratory health/asthma, neurodevelopmental and endocrine disorders, but the
list of potential pollution-induced diseases is much longer and also includes
diseases of adults. The European environment and health action programme has
taken this into account.
Thre is the need for an integrated approach
that accounts for the consequences of the globalisation of chemical production
and trade. The European Union adopted in December 2006 the REACH legislation
(Registration, Evaluation, Authorization of Chemicals), a uniform system for
the handling and management of industrial chemicals within the Union. The
ultimate objective of REACH is to improve the protection of human health and
the environment without impeding on industrial growth and development.
Beyond REACH, emerging or re-emerging
problems are appearing, resulting from exposures to low levels of an increasing
number of chemicals, often in complex mixtures emanating from the whole life
cycle of chemicals. New risks from 'old' pollutants are also becoming evident
in the light of increased scientific knowledge and new uses. Globalisation is resulting
in a shift of environmental burdens to developing countries, and the
re-importation of hazards via trans-boundary pollution and contaminated
products.
Figure 10.3.2.1. Life cycle of chemical products
Source: European Environment Agency (2007)
The chemical industry is growing worldwide. This
creates economical benefits but also bears risks as chemicals can be released
into the environment at all lifecycle stages form extraction, production and
use up to their final disposal and/or recycling. Information about hazardous
properties and human and environmental exposures is incomplete. Increased
consumption leads to increased chemical flow and widespread exposure with
potentially adverse impacts on human health and on the environment.
Substances of highest global concern are heavy metals
(mercury, lead and cadmium) and persistent organic pollutants. This section
will address some emerging chemical stressors further ahead. Food chemical
contaminants are only dealt with in Chapter 8.2.2 and not in the present
Chapter.
10.3.2.2. Data sources
This chapter is primarily based on extracts from the
European Environment Agency (EEA) report Europe’s State of the Environment –
the Fourth assessment (chapter on chemicals), and the EEA / Joint Research
Centre assessment “Environment and health”. These assessments are based on a
wide array of European and global information sources. Comprehensive
information is also available at the sources listed below. EEA assessments are
peer reviewed and quality checked by scientific experts and policymakers at
national authorities and European Commission Services.
·
European Chemicals
Bureau 
http://ecb.jrc.it/. This webpage contains chemical databases and as well
as links (http://ecb.jrc.it/links/) to member state competent authorities,
other organisations and interested parties and further information.
·
Information Exchange Network on Capacity
Building for the Sound Management of Chemicals http://www.who.int/ifcs/infocap/ (will be transferred to the SAICM, Strategic Approach
to international Chemicals Management, Secretariat http://www.chem.unep.ch/saicm/ )
·
OSPAR Convention,
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East
Atlantic Convention OSPAR, http://www.ospar.org
·
NIHS, National Institute
of Health Sciences (JAPAN) http://www.nihs.go.jp
·
NTP, National Toxicology
Program http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov
·
UNEP, United Nations
Environment Programme http://www.unep.ch/
·
UNEP
Global Mercury Assessment (http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/Report/Final%20Assessment%20report.htm)
·
UNEP
Stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants ( http://www.pops.int )
·
UNEP
Chemicals, Lead and cadmium ( http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pb_and_Cd/default.htm
)
·
The OECD has a
significant range of activities related to chemicals; one of the latest is the
development of a global portal to information on chemical
substances (eChemPortal) http://webnet3.oecd.org/echemportal/
·
The Japanese National
Institute for health Science hosts a website, Global Information Network on
Chemicals (GINC), which still contains relevant links though there is no
maintenance for GINC Home page since 2003 http://www.nihs.go.jp/GINC/
In the future the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) will
be an important information source: http://ec.europa.eu/echa/.
Chemical indicators are under development by EUROSTAT,
EEA and Joint Research Centre.
10.3.2.3. Data
presentation and analysis
Chemical production
European countries contribute significantly to the global
trade in chemicals, which increased by an average of 14% a year between 2000
and 2005 (WTO, 2006a). The EU25 and Switzerland together have a 59% share of
world exports and 48.4% of world imports. The EU chemical industry has grown faster
than gross domestic product (GDP) over the past ten years, with the production
of industrial chemicals increasing by 31% and GDP by 25% between 1995 and 2005
(Figure 10.3.2.2). The production of toxic chemicals25 increased by
23.5%. The substances of high concern – carcinogenic, mutagenic and repro-toxic
chemicals (CMR) - increased by 22% (Eurostat, 2006). The annual production of
toxic industrial chemicals in the EU25 in 2005, as registered in the Prodcom
database, was 212 million tonnes (Figure 10.3.2.3), 9.3%of which were in new
EU Member States.
The increasing production, trade and use of manufactured
goods – electronics, clothing, cars, etc. – account for most of the flows of
chemicals in today’s society, and thereby increase the exposure to them of both
people and the environment (ASEF, 2006).
Figure
10.3.2.2. Production volumes of
industrial chemicals relative to GDP for EU Member States 1995–2005
Figure
10.3.2.3. Production of toxic
chemicals in the EU. Source: Eurostat,
2006 derived from production statistics
Industrial releases
Public information about industrial emissions in the EU
has been available via the European Pollutant Emission Register (EPER) since
2004. This is the first register of industrial emissions into air and water,
and gives access to information on annual emissions from about 12 000
industrial facilities in the EU25 and Norway (http://www.eper.ec.europa.eu). The EPER review
report 2004 reveals that about two-thirds of the 50 air and water industrial
pollutants have been decreasing. These include nitrogen pollutants released
into water bodies (-14.5%), the various types of phosphorus (-12%) and the
emission of dioxins/furans (-22.5%) into the atmosphere. An upward trend can be
observed in emissions of certain pollutants e.g. carbon dioxide.
Industrial accidents typically cause acute damage in terms
of fatalities, injuries, environmental pollution but also economic losses.
Chemical spills can occur as consequences of accidents not only related to the
chemical industry but also due to hazardous substances used in downstream
industries. Mining is one of the sectors in which major accidents have happened
in the past, often associated to the release of high amounts of toxic
substances into the environment. (EEA 2003 -Kiev report) Mining is also one of
the major economic activities in SEE and the EECAA region, where fuels and
mining accounted for 53.5% of all exports in 2004.
Table 10.3.2.1. Some
industrial accidents in Europe
The absolute number of major “Seveso II accidents” (see
below) reported for the period 2000 – 2005, varies between 20 and 30 per year
(EU15) and shows no clear trend. According to a recent progress report from the European
commission, EU countries have "further improved" their implementation
and enforcement
of the Seveso II directive on major accident hazards. There are however weaknesses
in the current reporting arrangements. Intensified efforts to improve the
situation are needed in the fields of external emergency plans (elaboration and
testing) and provision of information to the public (European Commission,
2007).
Globalisation has led to an ‘outsourcing’ of chemical
production to rapidly developing regions, e.g. in Asia, also leading to the
export of public health problems. 14 of the 16 European companies that belong to the
world majors (CEFIC, 2003) – according to their companies’ web pages - have
engagements in China, where a series of industrial
accidents happened in 2005 and 2006. Chemical spills led to
major releases of chemicals into the environment, trans-boundary pollution
affecting the water supply of thousands of people in Russia and China.
Diffused and unintentional releases
There are increasing concerns about environmental and health
effects of diffused chemical releases arising from consumer products (such as cleaning agents, personal
care products, adhesives, paints, spray cans, paper, cloth, plastics, etc) and
unintentional by-products from industrial or traffic related combustion. These
include persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins and polyaromatic
hydrocarbons PAH. The United Kingdom Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
concluded that diffuse pollution from products is “more pervasive and more
difficult to detect and correlate with adverse effects on the environment and
human health” than that released accidentally during the production process
(RCEP, 2003).
One way of signaling the extent to which consumer products
pose a risk to human health is through the EU rapid alert systems. These
include the
Rapid Alert Systems for Food and Feed products (RASFF) and the Community Rapid
Information System (RAPEX) for non-food consumer products – cosmetics, clothes,
toys, jewellery, etc. Through these two indices the system records the number
of health risks reported for consumer products.
Distant impacts of chemical pollution in the pan-European
region
Emerging substances and new concerns
New uses, improved analytical methods and increased
knowledge of hazardous properties have led to environmental concerns about
chemicals that had not previously been regarded as problematic. Other
compounds, such as heavy metals, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins and PCBs
that have been regulated and monitored for a long time, continue, nonetheless,
to pose problems because of their persistence; their use in new technologies
including nanotechnology; newly identified exposure routes such as the case of
acrylamide in food (EU, 2002; or other concerns, for example pesticide spraying leading to
chemical exposure of people living nearby or passing fields (RCEP, 2005).
Platinum group elements (PGEs) and perflourinated
substances (PFS) are presented as examples because of their persistence and
potential for long-range transport, whlile acrylamide is given as an example
because of the history of its detection in food. Brominated flame retardant are
discussed in the following section in context with human biomonitoring.
Over the last decades, increasing concentrations of
Platinum group elements have been found in different environmental matrices
(WHO, 2000; LAI, 2002). The predominant anthropogenic source in Europe is the
emission, mainly in the form of small particulates, from car catalysts using
Pt/Rh or Pd/Rh. Pd/Rh catalysts that, due to costs, are being increasingly used
by the automobile industry may contain up to a factor of four times more active
metals than Pt/Rh catalysts (LAI 2002, IPCS 2002, Moldovan et al. 2002). Other
relevant sources are dental alloys, electronics, anti-cancer drugs (Pt),
catalysts in various industrial applications.
Table 10.3.2.2.
Platinum group elements in μg/kg of suspended particulate matter from the
river Rhine and tributaries
Table 10.3.2.2 shows levels of platinum group elements (in
μg/kg) in suspended matter collected in 2002 in the German state of North Rhine-Westfalia (NRW), in an area that can be regarded as a typical
representative of a European industrialised and urbanised region. Water
monitoring results between 2003 and 2004 showed an average between 1 and 11
ng/l for Pt with high peaks up to 44 ng/l in most sampling stations in March 2004.
These peaks were related to increased amounts of suspended matter due to
flooding.
Levels for Pd and Rh were mainly below the detection
limit. Identified inputs such as direct discharges from industrial and communal
waste water treatment plants, recycling, and (to a lesser extend) road-runoff
and discharge from dental clinics did not explain the total amount of PGEs
found in surface waters. The authors postulate that indirect discharges as well
as atmospheric deposition could be another relevant source. This hypothesis is
supported by measurements in rain, fog and dust. (IWW, 2004)
Platinum elements have been associated to aquatic toxicity
and human health effects such as asthma, allergies, nausea, increased hair
loss, increased spontaneous abortion, dermatitis and other serious health
problems in humans (Ravindra et al, 2004). These effects are mainly attributed
to the Pt and Pd compounds in their soluble form, especially to halogenated
salts, while the metallic form is relatively inert (WHO, 2002; WHO, 2000). It
is known from occupational settings that for soluble PT the critical levels for
sensitisation can be as low as 0.05μg/m3 air for previously sensitised
individuals (WHO, 2000). Sub-populations at risk include people with known
nickel allergy because of potential cross-reactions.
The relevance of these hazards at low concentrations is
still under debate. However the potential of platinum elements to accumulate in
environmental matrices and biological material and the fact that the substances
are found in remote areas such as Greenland ice and the Alps (Barbante et al,
1999) - indicating the potential for long-range transport- gives cause for
concern.
The EU Environment and Health Action Plan 2004-2010 identifies four priority
groups of diseases or physiological disturbances. These are childhood
respiratory disease and asthma, childhood cancer, neurodevelopmental disorders
and endocrine disruption. The text below is focused on endocrine disrupting
substances and neurodevelopment disorders (see also chapters on air pollution
and physical stressors), and finally some bio-monitoring data on lead and POPs,
including flame retardants.
Table 10.3.2.3 below overviews some associations between
chemicals and human diseases/disorders. The associations are of different
degrees of certainty, and the public health impact is often very difficult to
assess.
Table 10.3.2.3 . Major health impacts and some associations with environmental exposures
to chemicals and other environmental stressors and lifestyle factors (many
stressors, like air pollution, POPs, dioxins, pesticides and heavy metals, are
under strict regulatory control ).
|
Health
impact
|
Associations
with some environmental exposures
|
|
Infectious
diseases
|
water,
air and food contamination
climate
change-related changes in pathogen life cycle
|
|
Cancer
|
air
pollution (PM), mainly PM2.5 or less
smoking
and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)
some
pesticides
asbestos
natural
toxins (aflatoxin)
polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, e.g. in diesel fumes
some
metals e.g. arsenic, cadmium, chromium
radiation
(incl. sunlight)
radon
dioxins
|
|
Cardiovascular
diseases
|
air
pollution (carbon monoxide, ozon, PM)
smoking
and ETS
carbon
monoxide
lead
noise
inhalable
particles
food,
e.g. high cholesterol
stress
|
|
Respiratory
diseases, including asthma
|
smoking
and ETS
sulphur
dioxide
nitrogen
dioxide
inhalable
particles (PM2.5 and PM10)
ground-level
ozone
fungal
spores
dust
mites
pollen
pet
hair, skin and excreta
damp
|
|
Skin
diseases
|
UV
radiation
Some
metals e.g. nickel
pentachlorophenol
dioxins
|
|
Diabetes,
obesity
|
food,
e.g. high fat
poor
exercise
|
|
Reproductive
dysfunctions
|
polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs)
DDT
cadmium
phthalates
endocrine
disruptors
pharmaceuticals
|
|
Developmental
(foetal and childhood) disorders
|
lead
mercury
smoking
and ETS
cadmium
some
pesticides
endocrine
disruptors
|
|
Nervous
system disorders
|
lead
PCBs
methyl
mercury
manganese
some
solvents
organophosphates
|
|
Immune
response
|
UVB
radiation
Some
pesticides
|
|
Increased
chemical sensitivity
|
multiple
chemical exposures at low doses
|
Source:
European Environment Agency & Joint Research Centre (2006).
Due to the lack of good exposure data and patchy
information from environmental health surveillance and epidemiology, the causal
relationships for all of the actors is difficult to prove. The impacts are well
proven for some stressors e.g. asbestos/cancer, or lead and mercury /
neurotoxicity (including neurodevelopmental effects).
For others such as endocrine disruptors no clear
conclusions can be drawn regarding their effects on humans.
However, many fundamental physiological functions are
similar between animals and humans. Therefore, wild animals can serve as
indicators of potential health effects of chemicals in human. Indeed, much of
the information in Table 10.3.2.3. is based on observations from wild animals.
Wildlife examples have shown that certain human groups can be at increased risk
because of their preferential habit for fish consumption and other products
from the aquatic environment. Marine mammalian top predators, such as seals,
whales, dolphins and polar bears have high levels of POP residues in their
bodies obtained through the food chain. A number of physiological effects have
been observed in these animals including infertility, immunodeficiency and
different types of tissue malformations. These effects have also been reported
in humans when body burdens of POPs approach the levels present in wildlife.
“Window of vulnerability”
A complicating factor when assessing the impact of
chemicals on human health is that human vulnerability differs over age. An
increasing number of scientific studies indicate the role of exposure during
early life stages for a later development of a disease in adult life. For
example, Grandjean and Landringan (2006) conclude the flowing concerning
neurodevelopment; “Exposure to chemicals during early foetal development can
cause brain injury at doses much lower than those affecting adult brain
function. Recognition of these risks has led to evidence-based programmes of
prevention, such as elimination of lead additives in petrol. Although these
prevention campaigns are highly successful, most were initiated only after
substantial delays. Another 200 chemicals are known to cause clinical neurotoxic
effects in adults. Despite an absence of systematic testing, many additional
chemicals have been shown to be neurotoxic in laboratory models. The toxic
effects of such chemicals in the developing human brain are not known and they
are not regulated to protect children. The two main impediments to prevention
of neurodevelopmental deficits of chemical origin are the great gaps in testing
chemicals for developmental neurotoxicity and the high level of proof required
for regulation”.
A similar reasoning could be applied to the development of
cancer where several adult cancer forms can be traced back to environmental
exposures early in life. Unfortunately, human data is scarce and we have to
rely on animal data. A meta-analysis of animal data identified more than 50
chemicals causing cancer in adult life after perinatal exposure (Barton et al,
2005; EHP, 2006). It is concluded that exposure to chemicals with a mutagenic
mode of action during early life increases the susceptibility for developing
tumours in later life. Endocrine disrupters represent a case when mutagenesis
is not involved. Early life exposure to substances with estrogenic and
androgenic activity have been indicated in certain, hormone dependent, cancer
forms such as breast cancer in women and testicular- and prostate cancer in
men. Testicular cancer is increasing in the European population. The cancer
appears in young men aged 20-40, but the cancer process probably already starts
during the foetal period or the early years of life, as indicated in an
epidemiological study based on men from Sweden and Finland hinting that
environmental exposures early in life, probably via the mother, are likely to
be major determinants of this disease (Ekbom et al, 2003).
Endocrine Disruptors
Endocrine disruptors are substances that potentially
interfere with hormone-dependent functions in the body such as embryonic
development, production of sperm, control of the menstrual cycle, the onset of
puberty, thyroid function and cancers in hormone-dependent tissues. Worldwide,
a decline in semen quality has been observed over the past 50 years but no
clear connection to endocrine disrupters has been established. Breast and
testicular cancers are increasing in Europe but the connection to endocrine
disrupters is weak, at least on the basis of current knowledge. Intensive
research on this topic is under way. It must be concluded that environmental
endocrine disruption in humans is at present far more a matter of speculation
than a demonstrated fact. Much of the basis for concern derives from strong
evidence of endocrine disruption in wildlife (EEA, 2005).
Tin organic compounds as one of the best known and
documented examples for substances causing endocrine disruption in aquatic
organisms (imposex in snails) do also have adverse effects on mammalians at low
concentrations. The most sensitive parameter regarding human toxicity is the
adverse effect on the immune system; the TDI (tolerable
daily intake) for tributyltin oxide is as low as 0.00025 mg/kg bodyweight per
day. The main exposure route for humans is food (especially seafood);
additional low exposures may come from consumer products e.g. textiles (BgVV
2000, WHO 1990).
Carcinogens
A number of chemicals are potentially carcinogenic. They
are strictly controlled under the current legislation for preventing human
exposure. However, they may reach the environment via diffused sources e.g. in
accidental cases, as contamination in products or from natural sources. Arsenic
in drinking water and cadmium from diffused sources are environmental
contaminants of special concern, because of increasing environmental exposure
and of their suspected carcinogenicity.
Neurotoxicants
Mercury at concentrations that are sometimes observed in
the environment is well known to have neurodevelopmental effects, for example
attention problems, reduced learning ability, and slightly reduced IQ in
children. Measures are now being taken globally to reduce, inter alia, prenatal
mercury exposure and to ensure that tolerable daily intakes for pregnant women
are not exceeded. Important policy work on mercury has been performed in the EU
Mercury strategy (European Commission, 2005), and UNEPs
Global Mercury Assessment since 2004 (UNEP, 2004).
Lead is an established neurodevelopmental toxicant for
humans. Recent studies on the effects of lead in humans suggest that a ‘safe’
exposure level currently cannot be established. More data on lead exposure of
European citizens are necessary and are currently being collected. A ban on
leaded petrol has been very successful in lowering blood lead levels in
children and adults, which clearly indicates a reduced exposure.
Biomonitoring
Every European citizen has man-made chemicals in his or
her body. Bio-monitoring of different populations clearly shows an increased
body burden of some persistent and bio-accumulative substances, but
concentrations of other substances are decreasing. Breast milk is a good
indicator of human exposure to persistent chemicals in the normal life
situation and breast milk is regularly used as an indicator of exposure. The
bio-monitoring of different populations clearly shows an increased body burden
of some persistent and bio-accumulative substances, although concentrations of
other substances are decreasing. As an example, the study summarized in Figure
10.3.2.4 shows decreasing levels of DDT, PCB and HCB, but increasing levels of
brominated flame retardants (PBDE).
Figure 10.3.2.4.
Persistent Organic Pollutants levels in human milk, Sweden, 1972–1997
The most systematic information on human POPs is based on
three rounds of breast milk analysis studies of dioxins coordinated by the WHO.
The first round in 1987/8 included 12 European countries and indicated major differences
between countries from lipid-based concentrations (TEq) of ca. 10 pg/g in
Hungary to ca. 40 pg/g in the Netherlands. The decrease of concentrations was
in the order of 5% or more per year, higher in countries with the highest
initial concentrations. More countries joined the second and third rounds, and
the results of the fourth round are pending. The present concentrations are
about 10 pg/g (range of 5-20) in most countries. There are longer series of
measurements from some countries, e.g. Sweden. These show that the decrease
started already in late 1970s: the concentrations were then about five times
higher than the present levels.
There are much less systematic data on other POPs. Swedish
long-term analyses on breast milk indicate a decrease of 90% in DDT and its
metabolite p,p’-DDE, and lesser decreases in total PCBs, HCB and
polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCN) (figure 10.3.2.4; note different units for
different compounds). As there are no coordinated analyses, data from different
countries are difficult to compare. However, all organochlorine pesticide
levels in Europe are very low. There have been recent increases in
polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) and perfluorinated compounds.
Polybrominated diphenylethers now seem to be decreasing due to ban of penta-
and octa-derivatives taken up by biota and humans (not yet seen in the graph).
(WHO, 2007)
A German study, conducted between 2001 and 2004, found
medium concentrations of for S-PBDE of 2.49 ng/g fat which is comparable to the
levels reported from Sweden and Finland. The trend reversal however could not
be confirmed as the analysis methods were not comparable. Concentrations in
human breast milk reported from Italy, Belgium, Norway or the Netherlands for
the same period are in the same order of magnitude though slightly higher,
while concentration in samples from the UK and the Faroe islands where higher
by factor 2-3. (Kalanzki, 2003; Fangstrom, 2004). It is assumed that this
difference is due to obligatory treatment of furniture in the UK with flame
retardants and the higher consumption of fish and seal in the Faroes (Vieth et
al, 2005).
10.3.2.4. Control
tools and policies
The past few years have seen the adoption and
implementation of important agreements and legislation, both in Europe and
globally, that address the safer handling and management of chemicals to
protect both human health and the environment.
Emissions of hazardous chemicals from industrial
installations and agricultural activities are regulated in the EU by the
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive (European
Commission, 1996), through the application of an integrated approach, the best
available techniques, flexibility and public participation. Details of
industrial emissions have to be reported to the European Pollutant Emission
Register (EPER) and made publicly available on a website hosted by the EEA.
The Seveso II Directive, adopted in 1996 replaced the
original Seveso Directive of 1982, developed following the accidental dioxin
release in Seveso in 1976. The Seveso II Directive was broader in scope and
introduced new requirements for safety management systems, emergency and
land-use planning, and reinforced the provisions on inspections by Member
States to prevent risks to the environment and human health from industrial
chemical accidents. In 2003, in the light of serious industrial accidents, the
Directive was extended to cover risks arising from storage and processing
activities in mining – the case of cyanide spill in Baia Mare, 2000; from
pyrotechnic and explosive substances – the case of Enschede fireworks accident,
2001; and from the storage of ammonium nitrate and ammonium nitrate based
fertilisers – the case of the explosion in a fertiliser plant in Toulouse, 2001
(EC, 2003). The Member States were to comply with the extended Directive by
mid-2005.
The current chemicals legislation on the Registration,
Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) entered
into force on 1 June 2007, after many years of debate and negotiation. REACH is seen as the European contribution to
SAICM. Its key elements are: equal requirements for new and existing
substances; shifting the burden of proof from competent authorities to
manufacturers and importers; involvement of downstream users; and better risk
communication via chemical safety reports.
In addition, countries across pan-Europe have developed or
are in the process of developing national implementation plans for global
policies, such as the Globally harmonised system for classification and
labelling (UNECE, 2003), the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Management (UNEP, 2006), the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent
Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals (UNEP and FAO, 1998), the Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (UNEP, 2001), and the Basel
Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and
their Disposal (UNEP, 1992). However, not all countries have ratified the
relevant international conventions.
The Strategic Approach towards International Chemicals
Management (SAICM) was adopted by the International Conference on Chemicals
Management (ICCM) in Dubai on 6 February 2006. SAICM was developed by a
multi-stakeholder Preparatory Committee, co-convened by UNEP, the
Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety and the Inter-Organization Programme
for the Sound Management of Chemicals. It provides a policy framework to
support the achievement of the goal, agreed at the 2002 Johannesburg World
Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), for ensuring that by 2020, chemicals
are produced and used in ways that minimize significant adverse impacts on the
environment and human health.
The Globally Harmonised System (GHS) for classifying and
labelling hazardous substances, with a target date of 2008, agreed at WSSD,
aims at ensuring that information on physical hazards and toxicity will be
available in order to enhance the protection of human health and the
environment during the handling, transport and use of chemicals.
10.3.2.5. Future
developments
The widespread use of chemical substances without or
despite knowledge about their hazards has created several well known problems
which in case of persistent substances, substances used in long-life articles,
or delayed effects will stay with us for a long time, even after the production
of such substances has been phased out.
There is still a lack of data on inherent properties
(hazards) as well as on combined exposure from different media, sources of releases
and associated risks. Environmental surveillance and epidemiology have to be
improved in order to give a better assessment than the present patchy human
health picture – and also include the European human health fingerprint in
developing countries - and the links to health determinants.
The safe management of chemicals requires the co-operation
of many stakeholders in different sectors and a range of different tools (for
an overview of the status of ratification and implementation of international
conventions see Annex 1). Producers and manufacturers have special
responsibilities to which they can respond not only by fulfilling their legal
obligations but also by applying the principles of Green Chemistry, (Global)
Responsible Care, and (Global) Product stewardship. But legislation on
chemicals and legislative tools that ensure environmental quality or health
protection from hazardous chemicals are often developed and executed by
different authorities, which leaves gaps and results that need to improve
interlinkages and co-operation between these authorities.
An integrated approach to sound chemicals management
would contain the following elements:
·
the
substitution principle, to ensure that hazardous chemicals, products and
processes are replaced by safe alternatives;
·
the
‘polluter pays’ principle and economic responsibility for damage and negative
impacts on the environment and human health, including corporate liability and
compensation;
·
the
precautionary principle.
The focus on integration and wider involvement has been
strengthened and now needs to be put into practice: IPPC provides an integrated
approach for protecting all environmental media and disseminating better
technologies. SAICM encourages countries to set up inter-ministerial or inter-institutional
arrangements for chemical management, while REACH will actively involve both
downstream users and producers for reducing chemical hazards.
These new frameworks for a sustainable management of
chemicals will contribute to reaching the UNCED goals.
10.3.2.6.
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