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As the first
ascetics withdrew from the world to the desert, they were determined to detach
themselves from many worldly goods: marriage, wealth, and independent
action. Celibacy did not admit of degree, but was absolute. In poverty,
however, there occurred the modification which we have noted above in connexion
with the idiorrhythmic life. But even
here poverty was essentially maintained, for the property of the idiorrhythmic
monks was never sufficient for comfortable living. Finally, obedience,
either to an abbot or to the spiritual father of the desert, the abba, was a
significant concern of the monks. The
selfish, independent spirit represented the secular world, and hence had to be
uprooted completely. That is, the young
ascetic had to surrender his evil will to God in the person of his spiritual
father, in order that it might be transformed into a good will. This point is vividly illustrated an by an
anecdote in which an abba, wishing to test the degree of progress of his
spiritual son, asked him if he saw the horns-which were non-existent- of a
beast of burden which was passing by; and he replied without hesitation, “Yes,
I see them, abba”.
The observance of
these three virtues is undertaken by novices in a special pledge, during which
they are tonsured. The formulation of
this vow coincided with the foundation of the coenobitic system, and the
scriptural and doctrinal basis of monasticism was worked out soon
afterwards. Without it, monasticism was
in danger of deviating in the direction of the itinerant Massalians. In this way the subjection of monasticism to
the Church, and the channeling of its power in direction which were useful to
the Church were achieved. This
subjection was sealed by Justinian and embodied in laws (Nearai, 5,i.67,i).
The vices which threaten the moral
integrity of the ascetic are not these three alone. In subjequent aretology, other vices, together with these,
constitute the eight mortal thoughts:
gluttony, fornication, avarice, anger, sorrow, despondency, vanity and
pride. The passions which correspond to
these thoughts must be deadened and a state of passionlessness achieved.
Self-examination and self-censure, especially before going to bed,
provide the monk with powerful weapons, as he sets out to struggle against the
demons. But his chief weapon is
prayer-continuous and intense prayer.
The whole life of the monks is dominated by that converse with God; “the
whole life is a time for prayer” (Basil, Ascetic
Discourse, P.G., xxxi, 877).
The twenty-four
hours of the monk’s day are divided into three eight-hour periods: one for
prayer, one for rest, and one for work.
Their intense work has a
threefold purpose: to ensure their means of support, to aid their fellow-men,
and to avoid evil thoughts, which invade man’s consciousness particularly when
he is idle. The products of monastic
art and handicraft have always been of exceptional quality and are still in
great demand, especially their paintings and wood carvings. Also, works of classical and Christian literature
have been preserved in copies which came from monastic workshops.
Connected with
their work were the philanthropic activities of the monks. As we have already observed, this devotion
to philanthropy was first promoted and systematized by Basil the Great. After his time a monastery without a guest
house, hospital and school was inconceivable.
As a simple example we may mention that the monastery of Pantocrator at
Constantinople, which was established in the twelfth century, had a hospital with
men and women physicians, organized in a manner reminiscent of present-day
hospitals. It was divided into four
sections: medical, surgical, gynaecological, and the eye and ear infirmary. Remnants of this philanthropic activity can
still be seen in our day. The Bedouins
who live near the monastery of Sinai never make their own bread, but are given
it free by the monastery of St. Catherine there; and those who visit any
Orthodox monastery whatsoever receive free hospitality.
The monks who
occupied themselves with work, as we have described above, and combined the
struggle to free themselves from passion with serving those in need, were
called in earlier times active
(praktikoi). But beyond action
there is a higher stage in the ladder of monastic perfection: contemplation (theoria), the striving
for direct communion with God and the vision of Him. This differentiation of the activities of monks is encountered
very early, in a poem by Gregory the Theologian:
“Will you prefer action or contemplation?
Contemplation is the occupation of the perfect,
Action belongs to the many.
Both are good and dear;
Choose the one that befits you.”
Silence has been
an indispensable condition for the ascetic in his pursuit of perfection. By silence is meant inner quiet and the
related outer quiet through which the causes of passion are removed. This state has given its name to the last
brilliant period of Byzantine mystical theology: hesychasm.
Silence was
inseparably bound up with Christian ascesis.
The efforts of the first monks in this direction took the form of
avoiding babbling and remaining silent whenever circumstances called for
it. Abba Poimen is quoted as having
said: “Whoever talks for the sake of God’s will acts rightly; and whoever
remains silent for the sake of God’s will likewise acts rightly”. (Sayings of the Fathers,721). In any case, the element of silence, even
though it did not predominate unduly in monastic thought, later received
greater emphasis because of its connexion with inner prayer. It was judged that prayer, as a product of
the disposition of the heart, need not be expressed vocally, inasmuch as such
expression, by producing external stimuli, may interrupt concentration on the
object of prayer. In this way there
resulted inner, mental prayer, which became crystallized in the brief prayer of
Jesus, repeated incessantly.
Surrounded by
absolute, the spiritual silence, the spiritual eyes of “contemplative” monks
are opened. They become worthy of
visions and enjoy spiritual experience which can only be described with
difficulty. They live in a state of
continual illumination of the vision of light, and communion with the things of
light. The word “light” and other
related terms are encountered on almost every page of the writing of Simeon
Theologian and Gregory Palamas. This
light is part of God. Through a
paradoxical fusion of the historical with the metahistorical, the experience of
deification (theosis) becomes
possible here and now. The light which
was seen by Christ’s disciples on Mount Tabor, the light which the hesychats
see today, and the luminous quality of the world to come, constitute three
phases of one and the same spiritual event, fused together into one
supra-temporal reality.
The one-sided
domination of the “contemplative” tendency has contributed to the neglect of
the social mission of the monastic life in the East, in contrast to developments
in the West. Despite the attempts which
have been made from time to time, the reorganization of the monastic life on
the older foundations, especially on the rule of Basil the Great, did not
succeed, because these attempts were limited in scope and intensity. Without neglecting “contemplation”, to which
religious literature and piety owe so much, there is a need for action to be
emphasized once more, and for monasteries to be established which will promote
Christian ideals within the organized society of mankind.
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