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| Aristotle On the Gait of Animals IntraText - Concordances (Hapax - words occurring once) |
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1 1 | 1~WE have now to consider
2 10 | 10~A difficulty might perhaps
3 11 | 11~So much then for these questions.
4 12 | 12~We have stated above that
5 13 | 13~Now there are four modes
6 14 | 14~This is the way then the
7 15 | 15~Birds bend their legs in
8 16 | 16~We have already stated the
9 17 | 17~Now the rest have bandy
10 18 | 18~There is reason, too, for
11 19 | 19~A difficulty may be suggested
12 2 | 2~At the beginning of the
13 3 | 3~After these preliminaries,
14 4 | 4~Again, the boundaries by
15 5 | 5~Animals which, like men
16 6 | 6~The above discussion has
17 7 | 7~It is clear then how locomotion
18 8 | 8~The reason why snakes are
19 9 | 9~The fact that all animals
20 | about
21 6 | motion (and similarly of the absence of motion) of each of the
22 9 | as a substitute for the absent pair of fins. Quite flat
23 10 | course. Flying insects have absolutely no tail, and so drift along
24 2 | place-movements, it is only accidentally that what is carried by
25 8 | moved, and the animal must act in each of these cases with
26 9 | others by a telescopic action, like what are called earthworms
27 3 | passive and that which is active.~
28 | actually
29 17 | legs is that nature has added to their feet by subtracting
30 8 | limb. A walking creature advances from each of its members
31 11 | stouter than the lower. With advancing years the lower increase
32 3 | lean against it, or if it affords no resistance at all to
33 4 | For animals which make the aforesaid change (of place) by the
34 7 | in the animal world is in agreement with the above account.
35 4 | necessary for all to be alike right-handed. And man has
36 4 | Things that are not only alive but are animals have both
37 | almost
38 | alone
39 7 | sovereign part, and there is an alternate correspondence behind, exactly
40 19 | cuts off their legs, or as analogous with the seal and the bat.
41 6 | and the other difference appearing of necessity where there
42 10 | they happen upon; and this applies equally to sharded insects,
43 7 | more parts can live for any appreciable length of time, nor can
44 5 | left. Or we may reverse the argument and say quite well that
45 4 | right and left) is more articulate and detailed in some than
46 1 | History, we have now to ask reasons for the facts.~
47 2 | the left. Further we must assume that the originals of movements
48 3 | pushed down. That is why athletes jump further with weights
49 10 | use is like a cargo boat attempting to make its voyage with
50 16 | were somewhat turned under (bandy-shape) and backwards is plain.
51 19 | analogous with the seal and the bat. Both the latter are quadrupeds
52 4 | and enable the side which bears the weight to be moved.
53 12 | lie under the belly as the beast moved forward. If, however,
54 10 | a rudderless vessel, and beat against anything they happen
55 10 | to push away the air that beats against it, and that easily
56 | become
57 | becoming
58 10 | and to unsharded, like bees and wasps. Further, birds
59 | begin
60 10 | they use is like a cargo boat attempting to make its voyage
61 11 | the upper parts of their bodies being longer and stouter
62 10 | life.) The rest of their bodily structure is in harmony
63 4 | 4~Again, the boundaries by which living beings are
64 10 | neck, the strong and acute breastbone (acute like the prow of
65 17 | their feet; because they breath the air and have lungs they
66 16 | that some of them in their breeding periods, and some all their
67 7 | a kind of cestreus which breeds in the lake of Siphae. On
68 15 | natural construction is broadly speaking nearly the same.
69 11 | principle of horses fashioned in bronze with their forelegs prancing.
70 10 | not proportionate to the bulk of their body; this is heavy,
71 4 | the left to be moved. The burden then must rest on the side
72 4 | fact that all men carry burdens on the left shoulder; in
73 4 | kind, and besides what men call earth-worms), all these
74 9 | telescopic action, like what are called earthworms and leeches.
75 10 | flight they use is like a cargo boat attempting to make
76 3 | strains against that which carries the weight. It follows then
77 5 | identically situated, for example, Cephalopods (molluscs) and spiral-shaped
78 6 | movements arranged in a certain definite position relatively
79 4 | Examples are the murex and the ceryx. As all animals then start
80 10 | the scarab-beetle and the chafer, and to unsharded, like
81 12 | naturally have the power of changing position by the use of limbs,
82 9 | or arc were equal to the chord subtended; as it is, it
83 12 | the best possible in the circumstances. Inasmuch, therefore, as
84 19 | I think, treat all this class as mutilated, and as moving
85 19 | zoophytes, and sedentary if classed with progressing animals.~
86 10 | acute like the prow of a clipper-built vessel, so as to be well-girt,
87 10 | example peacocks, and domestic cocks, and generally birds that
88 1 | these facts, and others cognate to them; that the facts
89 13 | of flexion if we take the combinations in pairs. Fore and hind
90 1 | same creature, and again by comparison of the parts of creatures
91 9 | missing) pair of fins to complete the movement, as we have
92 13 | towards one another and the concavities outwards. Now no biped or
93 7 | forward parts is leading, the concavity is in its turn reversed,
94 7 | undulated), so we ought to conceive snakes as moving in concave
95 19 | especially in those which concern progression and any movement
96 5 | employed for movement in place connected with a point on the ground,
97 6 | movements some common part which connects the moving parts with one
98 5 | discussed elsewhere in another connexion.~Now there is in place a
99 14 | movements; if you take two consecutive pairs of legs the hind move
100 9 | correspondingly long; in consequence there must be flexion. For
101 11 | immediately to quite a small hip; consequently the whole body would be
102 11 | also evident from these considerations that a bird cannot possibly
103 2 | principles we are accustomed constantly to use for our scientific
104 2 | reference to its essential constitution. Accordingly if one way
105 15 | quadrupeds. For their natural construction is broadly speaking nearly
106 12 | unencumbered, and the progression continuing the weight must shift and
107 9 | rate could walk upright continuously and securely without flexions
108 10 | the outgrowths upon them contributes in a measure to the flight
109 6 | which I mean that which controls their movement), and further,
110 13 | forwards, as in B, or in converse ways and not in the same
111 13 | opposite way to C, where the convexities are turned towards one another
112 6 | parts are in pairs arranged coordinately or diagonally, and the common
113 10 | for instance the purple coot and the heron and all water-fowl.
114 8 | mutilation of one row of limbs is corrected by the number of limbs which
115 8 | they had the limbs which correspond to one another. In this
116 7 | and there is an alternate correspondence behind, exactly as in quadrupeds.
117 9 | so that its leg has to be correspondingly long; in consequence there
118 17 | crayfish for swimming, but the crab is not a swimming creature.
119 2 | these one is that Nature creates nothing without a purpose,
120 15 | this is useful for ease in creeping into holes, and for sitting
121 11 | useless as the wings of Cupids we see in pictures. It must
122 10 | These are the birds with curved talons, for swiftness of
123 19 | limbed creatures do when one cuts off their legs, or as analogous
124 19 | the problems of Life and Death.~—THE END.~ ~
125 6 | movements arranged in a certain definite position relatively to the
126 4 | he is natural in a higher degree than the other animals;
127 4 | distinguished in greater detail, while those which are not
128 4 | is more articulate and detailed in some than in others.
129 19 | described. It remains, after determining these questions, to investigate
130 4 | especially the right, more dextrous that is, than in other animals.
131 6 | arranged coordinately or diagonally, and the common centre is
132 | did
133 4 | such parts, but make the differentiation in the body itself and so
134 10 | legs instead of a tail to direct their flight. The flight
135 5 | Testaceans, and these we have discussed elsewhere in another connexion.~
136 6 | 6~The above discussion has made it clear that the
137 17 | Moreover, their shape is like a disk, as compared with the crayfish
138 7 | way as before they were dismembered. Examples are what is termed
139 11 | years the lower increase disproportionately, until the children get
140 6 | position relatively to the distances from it of the originals
141 17 | have their natural shape distorted. Web-footed birds swim with
142 4 | from them the nutriment is distributed to the growing members,
143 4 | which flows in each kind the distribution of nutriment and the process
144 15 | insects. In this way they divide the air or water most quickly
145 6 | pairs; the prior difference dividing these members into right
146 10 | for example peacocks, and domestic cocks, and generally birds
147 17 | shell-like skin, although they don’t swim but live in holes;
148 8 | mutilated creatures, however, drag the wounded limb after them
149 14 | the hind parts as it were dragged after. Again, that would
150 9 | one part leading and then drawing the whole of the rest of
151 9 | part stays still and it draws up what is left behind.~
152 10 | absolutely no tail, and so drift along like a rudderless
153 18 | former have their home in the dry medium, and cannot remain
154 11 | able to stand is above all due to their having the hip-bone
155 11 | because they are always dwarf-like, the upper parts of their
156 4 | and besides what men call earth-worms), all these have the distinction
157 9 | action, like what are called earthworms and leeches. These go forward,
158 15 | that this is useful for ease in creeping into holes,
159 4 | be moved. And so men hop easier on the left leg; for the
160 8 | this kind of movement is effected by part of the body at a
161 15 | and for sitting upon their eggs and guarding them. And as
162 13 | opposite, for example the elbow bends back, but the wrist
163 13 | like C, and like D only the elephant among quadrupeds and man
164 9 | account of the movement of elephants. But these kinds of movements
165 17 | with the crayfish which is elongated, and they haven’t a tail
166 | else
167 | elsewhere
168 5 | the term foot for a member employed for movement in place connected
169 4 | which initiates movement and enable the side which bears the
170 12 | flexion is like this, they are enabled to lift their feet high;
171 8 | must necessarily fall in endeavouring so to move.~Polypods however,
172 4 | process flows and in which it ends. One is a starting-point,
173 7 | length of time, nor can it enjoy the power of locomotion
174 | enough
175 4 | right besides those already enumerated; like the former these are
176 8 | In this way they could equalize their own weight, and not
177 9 | This was the old though erroneous account of the movement
178 8 | preserving the peculiar essence of each and its intended
179 1 | criss-cross?~We have to examine the reasons for all these
180 10 | that easily and without exhaustion. The hind-quarters, too,
181 9 | The following experiment exhibits the fact. If a man were
182 14 | said they cannot possibly experience either of these untoward
183 9 | forth. What follows will explain that if there were no point
184 16 | forwards except in the sense explained above, they are the only
185 9 | and while bending one, extend the other leg simultaneously,
186 9 | themselves; when the flexure is extended they would not have moved
187 3 | their arms; there is in extending the arms a kind of leaning
188 9 | actual fins and with the two extremes or semicircles of their
189 11 | the principle of horses fashioned in bronze with their forelegs
190 3 | without, and runners run faster if they swing their arms;
191 15 | in water animals, and the feather-like wings of insects. In this
192 10 | whence motion begins, is in feathered (flying) insects at the
193 10 | insects as regards their feathers, but especially the swiftest
194 10 | because the character of their feathery wings is not proportionate
195 7 | all the eels, move with fewer flexions in a fluid than
196 1 | The first is what are the fewest points of motion necessary
197 8 | way it recovers the same figure that it had at first.~
198 7 | animals of this shape have no fin, lampreys for example, but
199 8 | jump but also need to walk, finding that movement not sufficient
200 1 | have feet at all; why in fine the points on which progression
201 10 | strong by dint of its mass of flesh), in order to be able to
202 10 | especially the swiftest flyers among them. (These are the
203 12 | the hands, and for taking food. But quadrupeds which are
204 15 | most quickly and with most force and so effect their movement.
205 12 | be similar to that of the forefeet (for the hind legs, too,
206 12 | move, and are also in the forepart of their body. The reason
207 | found
208 5 | identically situated are four-footed, many-footed, or footless (
209 10 | voyage with oars; now the frailty both of the actual wings
210 4 | shoulder; in this way they set free the side which initiates
211 15 | lizards, spotted lizards, freshwater tortoises, and turtles,
212 11 | joining his part to the fundament. Really this is not a thigh
213 [Title]| On the Gait of Animals~
214 4 | innate, and whence each thing gets its sensations, the opposite
215 10 | point gives way as it were gradually; accordingly, even if there
216 8 | at more than four points. Granting this it is evident that
217 7 | their flexions is their great length, for just as tall
218 4 | nutriment and the process of growth; the inferior is that to
219 4 | put forward. Again, men guard themselves with their right.
220 15 | sitting upon their eggs and guarding them. And as they are splayed
221 10 | beat against anything they happen upon; and this applies equally
222 17 | soft-skinned, but the crayfish is hard-skinned and its limbs are for swimming
223 10 | and generally birds that hardly fly, cannot steer a straight
224 10 | their bodily structure is in harmony with their peculiar movement,
225 17 | which is elongated, and they haven’t a tail like the crayfish;
226 11 | those that lie under these heavier, is plain. Only if situated
227 10 | bulk of their body; this is heavy, their wings small and frail,
228 4 | change (of place) by the help of organized parts (I mean
229 | her
230 | Here
231 10 | the purple coot and the heron and all water-fowl. These
232 | himself
233 10 | without exhaustion. The hind-quarters, too, are light and taper
234 11 | due to their having the hip-bone shaped like a thigh, and
235 1 | is clear from our Natural History, we have now to ask reasons
236 11 | which man is. For as it holds its body now the wings are
237 16 | quadrupeds which live in holes-for example lizards and crocodiles
238 7 | that their middle becomes hollow and bellied (undulated),
239 4 | to be moved. And so men hop easier on the left leg;
240 11 | spoke that the form of no human nor any similar being permits
241 11 | walking erect. Birds are hunchbacked yet stand on two legs because
242 10 | Schizoptera) whose tails are ill-adapted for the use in question,
243 11 | the leg would be attached immediately to quite a small hip; consequently
244 9 | simultaneously, so as to incline forward and make a stride
245 7 | direction their left hip rather inclined backwards, so that their
246 11 | advancing years the lower increase disproportionately, until
247 4 | movement is on the right is indicated by the fact that all men
248 4 | with more labour. Another indication that the right is the source
249 2 | species of dimensions which inhere in various things; of these
250 4 | nature of the right is to initiate movement, that of the left
251 4 | set free the side which initiates movement and enable the
252 4 | the part in which sense is innate, and whence each thing gets
253 7 | for the right becomes the inner. (Let the right front point
254 2 | At the beginning of the inquiry we must postulate the principles
255 17 | shell-like character of its integument.~For these reasons then
256 16 | arranged in this way they would interfere less with one another in
257 19 | determining these questions, to investigate the problems of Life and
258 2 | to use for our scientific investigation of nature, that is we must
259 9 | these kinds of movements involve a flexion in the shoulders
260 12 | ministrations. If the flexion were inwards it would be difficult to
261 9 | perpendicular; for the legs form an isosceles triangle, and the head sinks
262 11 | the knee-joint, the other joining his part to the fundament.
263 12 | the whole thigh and the joint from which the shin-bone
264 12 | And so the legs must be jointed. And it is possible for
265 3 | it. For an animal which jumps makes its jump both by leaning
266 6 | original of its movements the juncture of the parts in question.~
267 9 | of elephants. But these kinds of movements involve a flexion
268 9 | knee or, if there were any kneeless animal which walked, at
269 9 | through the sand on their knees. For the upper part of the
270 16 | another in progression and not knock together. But the reason
271 4 | moved at all or with more labour. Another indication that
272 8 | secondly the principle we laid down above that no Sanguineous
273 7 | cestreus which breeds in the lake of Siphae. On this account
274 19 | claw; the right claw is larger and stronger, as though
275 1 | peculiar curvature of the limbs laterally away from the body. Again,
276 3 | general that which pushes down leans upon what is pushed down.
277 8 | once as in the movement of leaping, some of the limbs must
278 9 | this fashion make their leaps. So too flying and swimming
279 9 | are called earthworms and leeches. These go forward, first
280 | less
281 3 | by pressing against what lies below it. Accordingly if
282 3 | weight, the part that is lifted strains against that which
283 9 | higher when he stands and lifts himself up.~It is, indeed,
284 10 | hind-quarters, too, are light and taper again, in order
285 6 | the right and left, are linked to one another by the same
286 7 | two hinder points. They look as if they moved at two
287 11 | thigh, and so large that it looks as if they had two thighs,
288 17 | breath the air and have lungs they are bipeds, but because
289 4 | although it is not made so manifest to us. That the beginning
290 12 | this respect they are like mankind. And so quadrupeds as well
291 5 | situated are four-footed, many-footed, or footless (quadruped,
292 7 | snakelike. However, some marine animals of this shape have
293 13 | backwards, as the figures marked A, or in the opposite way
294 10 | and strong by dint of its mass of flesh), in order to be
295 10 | upon them contributes in a measure to the flight described.
296 18 | cannot remain always in mid air; they must therefore
297 12 | young, with a view to such ministrations. If the flexion were inwards
298 19 | latter are quadrupeds but misshapen. Now molluscs do move, but
299 13 | 13~Now there are four modes of flexion if we take the
300 12 | performed not with contrary motions, but with one forward motion.~
301 4 | an animal does with its mouth.~Things that are not only
302 4 | the left should be most movable, and most detached. In man,
303 | much
304 4 | spire. Examples are the murex and the ceryx. As all animals
305 8 | their limbs; for then the mutilation of one row of limbs is corrected
306 5 | appear to have got their name from the ground under our
307 7 | is only because they are narrow in breadth. Even. in them
308 10 | the small head, the slight neck, the strong and acute breastbone (
309 | never
310 10 | to make its voyage with oars; now the frailty both of
311 19 | distinction of left and right. Now observation shows them moving. We must,
312 15 | And this same arrangement obtains also among fishes. Among
313 8 | indeed make progress on an odd number of limbs, as may
314 16 | crabs are in nature the oddest of all polypods; they do
315 9 | children crawl. This was the old though erroneous account
316 17 | their heads twisted, as one-eyed men walk; they have their
317 9 | indeed, possible to move oneself even if the leg be not bent,
318 4 | of place) by the help of organized parts (I mean feet for example,
319 19 | as to where that movement originates; for they have no distinction
320 8 | their own weight, and not oscillate to one side, if they had
321 7 | bellied (undulated), so we ought to conceive snakes as moving
322 10 | actual wings and of the outgrowths upon them contributes in
323 14 | first the weight would be outside the supporting limbs and
324 | over
325 9 | fact. If a man were to walk parallel to a wall in sunshine, the
326 4 | back.~All animals which partake not only in sense, but are
327 3 | distinction of the part which is passive and that which is active.~
328 10 | described. Among birds, the peacock’s tail is at one time useless
329 10 | in question, for example peacocks, and domestic cocks, and
330 18 | similarly fish have two pectoral fins; again, birds have
331 18 | under parts and near the pectorals. Birds, too, have a tail
332 7 | property belongs almost peculiarly to Sanguineous animals,
333 12 | progression described will be performed not with contrary motions,
334 | perhaps
335 16 | of them in their breeding periods, and some all their life,
336 11 | human nor any similar being permits of wings; not only because
337 9 | head sinks lower when it is perpendicularly above the base on which
338 11 | wings of Cupids we see in pictures. It must have been clear
339 2 | These are the essential place-movements, it is only accidentally
340 15 | posture) to have the thigh so placed below the body as it actually
341 12 | flexion were backwards, the placing of the foot would be made
342 13 | opposite way backwards. And plainly the lower limbs are opposed
343 10 | general at the opposite pole to flying insects as regards
344 5 | or footless (quadruped, polypod, limbless). I use the term
345 19 | too, show the distinction poorly, still they do show it.
346 7 | shape, for even the hinder portion of all these goes on progressing
347 1 | is and to what end they possess them; and second, the differences
348 7 | power of locomotion which it possessed while it was a continuous
349 2 | beginning of the inquiry we must postulate the principles we are accustomed
350 15 | preferable for the standing posture) to have the thigh so placed
351 8 | two or four they would be practically stationary; so slow and
352 11 | bronze with their forelegs prancing. But their being bipeds
353 7 | and water (for snakes swim precisely as they move on the ground).
354 4 | and after standing still prefer to put the left foot forward,
355 15 | is necessary (or at least preferable for the standing posture)
356 3 | 3~After these preliminaries, we go on to the next questions
357 8 | possible for each individual, preserving the peculiar essence of
358 4 | unless something happens to prevent it. The reason is that their
359 6 | remaining two pairs; the prior difference dividing these
360 19 | questions, to investigate the problems of Life and Death.~—THE
361 14 | the horses in a religious procession. For these reasons the fore
362 9 | flat fish, like the Ray, produce their swimming movement
363 7 | excellence. Moreover, since this property belongs almost peculiarly
364 8 | whose length is out of proportion to the rest of their dimensions,
365 10 | their feathery wings is not proportionate to the bulk of their body;
366 10 | breastbone (acute like the prow of a clipper-built vessel,
367 2 | in place are thrusts and pulls. (These are the essential
368 10 | no use; for instance the purple coot and the heron and all
369 12 | Nature’s workmanship is never purposeless, as we said above, but everything
370 8 | not sufficient for their purposes, evidently either are better
371 10 | in order to be able to push away the air that beats
372 3 | down leans upon what is pushed down. That is why athletes
373 3 | and in general that which pushes down leans upon what is
374 17 | more useful than long for pushing away the water when they
375 10 | difficulty might perhaps be raised about birds. How, it may
376 9 | the hips. Nothing at any rate could walk upright continuously
377 9 | Quite flat fish, like the Ray, produce their swimming
378 9 | subtended; as it is, it reaches further when it is straightened
379 11 | his part to the fundament. Really this is not a thigh but
380 12 | his arms bend backwards reasonably enough. If they bent the
381 8 | alternately, for in this way it recovers the same figure that it
382 14 | in this way soon begin to refuse, for example the horses
383 6 | equally or nearly equally related to each of the centres in
384 14 | example the horses in a religious procession. For these reasons
385 8 | limb after them with the remainder, and do not properly speaking
386 10 | fact fly if their legs be removed, nor walk without their
387 3 | it, or if it affords no resistance at all to what is moving,
388 14 | either of these untoward results. And this is why horses
389 5 | than the left. Or we may reverse the argument and say quite
390 7 | concavity is in its turn reversed, for the right becomes the
391 4 | necessary for all to be alike right-handed. And man has the left limbs
392 12 | case have only a little room for their lifting inasmuch
393 8 | then the mutilation of one row of limbs is corrected by
394 10 | tail serves, like a ship’s rudder, to keep the flying thing
395 10 | and so drift along like a rudderless vessel, and beat against
396 3 | than without, and runners run faster if they swing their
397 3 | hands than without, and runners run faster if they swing
398 3 | for example walking (and running) animals. In both these
399 9 | crawl forward through the sand on their knees. For the
400 14 | neither of these two is satisfactory, they must move criss-cross;
401 10 | insects at the base of the "scale-wing"", in birds at the base
402 10 | sharded insects, like the scarab-beetle and the chafer, and to unsharded,
403 10 | flying insects, and birds (Schizoptera) whose tails are ill-adapted
404 9 | like men in the wrestling schools who crawl forward through
405 2 | constantly to use for our scientific investigation of nature,
406 7 | for example, but put the sea to the same use as snakes
407 19 | or as analogous with the seal and the bat. Both the latter
408 8 | intended character, and secondly the principle we laid down
409 8 | supports instead of one section of the opposite sides being
410 9 | upright continuously and securely without flexions at the
411 8 | number of limbs, as may be seen by the experiment of wounding
412 9 | with the two extremes or semicircles of their body, bending and
413 4 | whence each thing gets its sensations, the opposite parts are
414 17 | this arrangement their feet serve them instead of fins. They
415 10 | winged creatures the tail serves, like a ship’s rudder, to
416 17 | and being set back are serviceable for swimming. The reason
417 6 | relatively to that which sets up its own motion, because
418 7 | divided, in each of the severed parts, and can move in the
419 9 | the line described (by the shadow of his head> would be not
420 11 | their having the hip-bone shaped like a thigh, and so large
421 10 | this applies equally to sharded insects, like the scarab-beetle
422 | she
423 10 | at another because it is shed. But birds are in general
424 4 | spiral-shaped Testaceans have their shells on the right, for they do
425 12 | young under them and to shelter them.~
426 12 | continuing the weight must shift and be taken off on this
427 8 | cases with opposite limbs, shifting the weight from the limbs
428 12 | would go backwards, and the shin would move the foot forwards
429 12 | the joint from which the shin-bone springs would lie under
430 10 | the tail serves, like a ship’s rudder, to keep the flying
431 | should
432 19 | and right. Now observation shows them moving. We must, I
433 18 | non-sanguineous. There is a broad similarity between birds and fishes
434 9 | one, extend the other leg simultaneously, so as to incline forward
435 9 | isosceles triangle, and the head sinks lower when it is perpendicularly
436 7 | which breeds in the lake of Siphae. On this account too those
437 15 | creeping into holes, and for sitting upon their eggs and guarding
438 15 | If then it must have this situation the flexion of the leg must
439 4 | naturally determined are six in number, superior and
440 17 | have a hard and shell-like skin, although they don’t swim
441 4 | relatively to our earth and the sky above our heads. The superior
442 10 | movement, the small head, the slight neck, the strong and acute
443 14 | if you watch them moving slowly. Even crabs move in this
444 7 | all that have their form snakelike. However, some marine animals
445 17 | bandy legs because they are soft-skinned, but the crayfish is hard-skinned
446 16 | the legs themselves were somewhat turned under (bandy-shape)
447 4 | indication that the right is the source of movement is the way we
448 7 | in them the right is the sovereign part, and there is an alternate
449 3 | the body; one part so to speak squeezes, the other is squeezed;
450 7 | tall men walk with their spines bellied (undulated) forward,
451 15 | guarding them. And as they are splayed outwards they must of necessity
452 11 | been clear as soon as we spoke that the form of no human
453 4 | these have the distinction spoken of, although it is not made
454 15 | like crocodiles, lizards, spotted lizards, freshwater tortoises,
455 15 | obliquely as their whole body sprawls over the ground, and bend
456 12 | from which the shin-bone springs would lie under the belly
457 3 | body; one part so to speak squeezes, the other is squeezed;
458 5 | it is reasonable for the starting points to be in these parts;
459 9 | out, and then this part stays still and it draws up what
460 10 | that hardly fly, cannot steer a straight course. Flying
461 4 | comes from the leg they step off, not from the one put
462 17 | instead of length she gives stoutness to the legs and breadth
463 9 | reaches further when it is straightened out, and then this part
464 9 | progress, and now is hooped; it straightens itself in its leading part,
465 3 | the part that is lifted strains against that which carries
466 9 | incline forward and make a stride and still remain above the
467 19 | right claw is larger and stronger, as though the right and
468 14 | the progression would be a stumbling forwards with the hind parts
469 9 | only two. These swim by substituting a flexion of the rest of
470 9 | were equal to the chord subtended; as it is, it reaches further
471 9 | than the one line which subtends them undulating animals
472 17 | has added to their feet by subtracting from the length of their
473 11 | then and not till then they succeed in walking erect. Birds
474 14 | And this is why horses and such-like animals stand still with
475 10 | not by their breadth to suck the air.~
476 12 | bend thus when they are suckling their young, with a view
477 8 | finding that movement not sufficient for their purposes, evidently
478 19 | 19~A difficulty may be suggested as to the movements of molluscs,
479 9 | walk parallel to a wall in sunshine, the line described (by
480 8 | the latter case it has no support at all on which to rest
481 14 | weight would be outside the supporting limbs and they would fall.
482 7 | and behind in their flat surface, in the part towards the
483 15 | viviparous quadrupeds.~If now we survey generally birds and winged
484 10 | feathers, but especially the swiftest flyers among them. (These
485 10 | with curved talons, for swiftness of wing is useful to their
486 3 | runners run faster if they swing their arms; there is in
487 18 | have a tail and fish a tail-fin.~
488 10 | birds (Schizoptera) whose tails are ill-adapted for the
489 12 | weight must shift and be taken off on this leading leg,
490 4 | growing members, and a plant takes it with its roots as an
491 | taking
492 7 | great length, for just as tall men walk with their spines
493 10 | are the birds with curved talons, for swiftness of wing is
494 10 | hind-quarters, too, are light and taper again, in order to conform
495 9 | is a flexion; others by a telescopic action, like what are called
496 5 | polypod, limbless). I use the term foot for a member employed
497 7 | dismembered. Examples are what is termed the centipede and other
498 19 | them moving. We must, I think, treat all this class as
499 | through
500 2 | of movements in place are thrusts and pulls. (These are the