| Table of Contents | Words: Alphabetical - Frequency - Inverse - Length - Statistics | Help | IntraText Library |
| Aristotle On Interpretation IntraText - Concordances (Hapax - words occurring once) |
bold = Main text
Paragraph grey = Comment text
1 1 | 1~First we must define the
2 10 | 10~An affirmation is the statement
3 11 | 11~There is no unity about
4 12 | 12~As these distinctions have
5 13 | 13~Logical sequences follow
6 14 | 14~The question arises whether
7 2 | 2~By a noun we mean a sound
8 3 | 3~A verb is that which, in
9 4 | 4~A sentence is a significant
10 5 | 5~The first class of simple
11 6 | 6~An affirmation is a positive
12 7 | 7~Some things are universal,
13 8 | 8~An affirmation or denial
14 9 | 9~In the case of that which
15 11 | we are, at the same time, able to combine the predicates "
16 | above
17 14 | accidental; for it is by accident that it is not bad. But
18 11 | unity, for they belong only accidentally to the same subject. Nor
19 13 | possess a potentiality not in accordance with a rational principle,
20 5 | answer to a question or an act of his own initiation.~To
21 9 | that both deliberation and action are causative with regard
22 13 | potentiality. Some things are actualities without potentiality, namely,
23 10 | universal in character. Thus the adjectives "every" and no additional
24 11 | possible: indeed, when in the adjunct there is some opposite which
25 13 | every potentiality which admits of opposite results, even
26 9 | supposition that if we should adopt a certain course, a certain
27 10 | subject and predicate does not affect the sense of affirmations
28 6 | Now it is possible both to affirm and to deny the presence
29 7 | they will not be contrary, albeit the meaning intended is
30 9 | the future, the case is altered. For if all propositions
31 | although
32 13 | For the term "possible" is ambiguous, being used in the one case
33 | among
34 10 | as has been said in the Analytics. The same rule holds good,
35 11 | it right to call a man an animal-man or a two-footed man; for
36 10 | animal is just" and "some animals are just" are both true.~
37 11 | his opponent the chance of announcing one of two alternatives,
38 | anyone
39 12 | be" and "it may not be" appear each to imply the other:
40 14 | principle is universal in its application.~Again, the judgement that
41 10 | that scheme applies, which applied when the word "is" was added.~
42 10 | proposition "man is white" the appropriate contradictory is "man is
43 9 | white. It may therefore be argued that it is necessary that
44 14 | 14~The question arises whether an affirmation finds
45 3 | who uses such expressions arrests the hearer’s mind, and fixes
46 12 | affirmations and denials which assert or deny possibility or contingency,
47 10 | man". The negative must be attached to the word "man", for the
48 3 | hearer’s mind, and fixes his attention; but they do not, as they
49 14 | are at the same time other attributes, which do not and cannot
50 9 | place on the next day.~These awkward results and others of the
51 9 | if the prediction dates back ten thousand years or any
52 7 | he is progressing towards beauty he is not yet beautiful.~
53 | becomes
54 | beforehand
55 2 | pirate-boat" the word "boat" has no meaning except as
56 2 | sounds, such as those which brutes produce, are significant,
57 12 | true; for that which is capable of walking or of being seen
58 6 | which we make to meet the casuistries of sophists.~
59 9 | deliberation and action are causative with regard to the future,
60 13 | non-impossibility follow without change of subject from those predicating
61 9 | type also in a previous chapter.~When the subject, however,
62 11 | man has such and such a characteristic or not.~Some combinations
63 12 | must be rejected, we must choose the latter.~The contradictory,
64 5 | single; for it is not the circumstance that the words follow in
65 14 | subsist, for both these classes of judgement are of unlimited
66 10 | not-man is not". The same classification holds good with regard to
67 12 | been stated, define the clauses "that it should be" and "
68 11 | and being musical do not coalesce to form a unity, for they
69 9 | It is possible that this coat may be cut in half, and
70 11 | characteristic or not.~Some combinations of predicates are such that
71 10 | will be", "was", "is coming to be", and the like are
72 11 | proposition "man is white of complexion and musical". Whiteness
73 5 | composite, i.e. that which is compounded of simple propositions.
74 13 | posterior in time; a third class comprises those things which are never
75 3 | of which we cannot form a conception apart from the things coupled.~
76 7 | propositions necessarily sometimes concern a universal subject, sometimes
77 14 | judgements are those which are concerned with the starting points
78 10 | propositions which deal with a condition of privation; the other
79 13 | in which realization is conditionally practicable, as when a man
80 10 | other pairs, if a term be conjoined with "not-man", the latter
81 5 | conjunction.~Let us, moreover, consent to call a noun or a verb
82 12 | be". For it is a logical consequence of what we have said, either
83 11 | be combined, many absurd consequences ensue.~We will now explain
84 13 | substances; a second class consists of those things which are
85 2 | significant, yet none of these constitutes a noun.~The expression "
86 11 | is also good, we cannot construct a composite proposition
87 10 | may seem to be denials containing neither noun nor verb in
88 14 | judgement are of unlimited content.~Those judgements must rather
89 12 | assert or deny possibility or contingency, impossibility or necessity:
90 9 | those things which are not continuously actual there is potentiality
91 6 | it would be possible to contradict any affirmation or denial.
92 11 | admission of one of two contradictories-and the premiss is itself always
93 11 | itself always one of two contradictories-the answer to such a question
94 7 | that a single denial is contradictorily opposite to a single affirmation
95 4 | words, indeed, the parts contribute to the meaning of the whole;
96 2 | significant, in the latter it contributes to the meaning of the whole,
97 10 | is not man is just".~The conversion of the position of subject
98 10 | their specific meaning they convey the notion of time. Thus
99 3 | indicate anything, but imply a copulation, of which we cannot form
100 9 | he that denies this is in correspondence with fact, whereas if things
101 14 | Now if the spoken word corresponds with the judgement of the
102 12 | may walk may also escape cutting and refrain from walking;
103 9 | the case if the prediction dates back ten thousand years
104 11 | it is not right to call a dead man a man. When, however,
105 14 | true who is most thoroughly deceived, for contraries are among
106 9 | a position impossible to defend. In the first place, though
107 14 | that judgements are to be defined as contrary in virtue of
108 5 | a verb. The phrase which defines the species "man", if no
109 11 | nouns are expanded into definitions, and wherein the predicates
110 6 | equivocal". Indeed there are definitive qualifications besides this,
111 7 | beautiful; for if a man is deformed he is the reverse of beautiful,
112 9 | There would be no need to deliberate or to take trouble, on the
113 9 | conclusion; for we see that both deliberation and action are causative
114 10 | proposition, whereas it has been demonstrated’ that each proposition has
115 10 | but an indefinite noun, denoting as it does in a certain
116 3 | is not, ill", I do not describe as verbs; for though they
117 10 | joined in the table by a diagonal line should both be true;
118 10 | man", if its meaning be different, the contradictory will
119 12 | the subject is not without difficulty.~We admit that of composite
120 1 | experiences, which these directly symbolize, are the same
121 14 | Callias is unjust"; we have to discover which of these form contraries.~
122 4 | false.~Let us therefore dismiss all other types of sentence
123 13 | necessity. That there is a distinction is clear. In this case,
124 12 | 12~As these distinctions have been made, we must
125 9 | is not always possible to distinguish and state determinately
126 5 | future, according to the divisions of time.~
127 11 | an animal, and biped, and domesticated, but these three predicates
128 | down
129 13 | Logical sequences follow in due course when we have arranged
130 11 | definite form, and inquire, e.g.. whether man has such and
131 9 | an event might just as easily not happen as happen; for
132 5 | unbroken succession that effects the unity. This inquiry,
133 11 | when some such opposite elements are present, resolution
134 9 | element of chance will be eliminated. For example, it would be
135 13 | thus much has been said to emphasize the truth that it is not
136 10 | which preceded it, since it employs as its subject the expression "
137 | END
138 10 | not-just~This is an exhaustive enumeration of all the pairs of opposite
139 3 | verbs, since they apply equally well to that which exists
140 6 | of predicate must not be "equivocal". Indeed there are definitive
141 13 | some cases the word is used equivocally. For the term "possible"
142 12 | cut or may walk may also escape cutting and refrain from
143 14 | first quality is part of its essence, the second accidental;
144 8 | instance, if a man should establish the symbol "garment" as
145 13 | Thus, if that which is eternal is prior, actuality also
146 9 | the opposite direction by exception.~Now that which is must
147 13 | other direction. There are exceptions. In the first place we must
148 13 | two alternatives will be excluded. It remains, therefore,
149 12 | which takes its place will exercise the same function. Thus
150 10 | Not-man is not-just~This is an exhaustive enumeration of all the pairs
151 9 | than the denial; while some exhibit a predisposition and general
152 13 | in motion, the former can exist also in the case of that
153 9 | that which is not always existent or not always nonexistent.
154 11 | contradiction when the nouns are expanded into definitions, and wherein
155 1 | are the symbols of mental experience and written words are the
156 3 | they do not, as they stand, express any judgement, either positive
157 14 | and denials are judgements expressed in words, it is plain that
158 5 | speak in this way when he is expressing something, in such a way
159 14 | is the passing from one extreme to its opposite; therefore
160 4 | means by which a physical faculty is realized, but, as we
161 2 | itself, as in the phrase "fair steed." Yet there is a difference
162 2 | from the rest. In the noun "Fairsteed," the part "steed" has no
163 10 | When the verb "is" does not fit the structure of the sentence (
164 9 | place of necessity and is fixed. For either he that affirms
165 3 | arrests the hearer’s mind, and fixes his attention; but they
166 13 | for "it cannot be" is followed by "it is impossible that
167 5 | asked how the expression "a footed animal with two feet" can
168 5 | place in an investigation foreign to that before us.~We call
169 9 | nothing is or takes place fortuitously, either in the present or
170 10 | propositions that can possibly be framed. This last group should
171 9 | necessary that that should find fulfillment; and with regard to all
172 9 | necessity take place in the fullness of time.~Further, it makes
173 12 | place will exercise the same function. Thus the contradictory
174 9 | exhibit a predisposition and general tendency in one direction
175 12 | that it should not be".~To generalize, we must, as has been stated,
176 7 | a universal, but rather gives the proposition a universal
177 13 | possesses the potentiality of giving out heat, that is, an irrational
178 1 | this, consider the word "goat-stag." It has significance, but
179 12 | to do with necessity are governed by the same principle. The
180 10 | possibly be framed. This last group should remain distinct from
181 3 | expressions arrests the hearer’s mind, and fixes his attention;
182 11 | it is; for the opinion held about it is that it is not,
183 13 | these statements by the help of a table:~ ~~~A.~~~~B.~~~~~~
184 | him
185 | how
186 14 | good is good, and this is identical with the judgement that
187 6 | subject and predicate. The identity of subject and of predicate
188 3 | is not-healthy", "is not, ill", I do not describe as verbs;
189 1 | our experiences are the images. This matter has, however,
190 13 | indicated, and no logical impossibilities occur when they are thus
191 12 | can be both applicable and inapplicable to one and the same subject
192 2 | when it becomes a symbol; inarticulate sounds, such as those which
193 14 | at the same time without inconsistency, contrary propositions are
194 11 | he is a white man so on indefinitely. Or, again, we may combine
195 11 | proper sense and not in any indirect way, the individual may
196 9 | the circumstances are not influenced by the fact of an affirmation
197 13 | and its absence are the initial principles of existence
198 5 | question or an act of his own initiation.~To return: of propositions
199 11 | more definite form, and inquire, e.g.. whether man has such
200 | instead
201 7 | contrary, albeit the meaning intended is sometimes contrary. As
202 [Title]| On Interpretation~
203 2 | limitation "by convention" was introduced because nothing is by nature
204 13 | but, as has been said, inversely connected.~Yet perhaps it
205 13 | impossible" is negative.~We must investigate the relation subsisting
206 9 | kind follow, if it is an irrefragable law that of every pair of
207 1 | separation; "man" and "white", as isolated terms, are not yet either
208 10 | case, that the propositions joined in the table by a diagonal
209 11 | explain what ought to be laid down.~Those predicates,
210 9 | thing was both white and large, both these qualities must
211 9 | if it is an irrefragable law that of every pair of contradictory
212 9 | would be.~Yet this view leads to an impossible conclusion;
213 9 | that is false, but must leave the alternative undecided.
214 | likely
215 14 | then that false judgement likewise is most really false, which
216 2 | part of the whole word.~The limitation "by convention" was introduced
217 10 | the table by a diagonal line should both be true; though
218 11 | both cases the unity is linguistic, but not real.~If therefore
219 13 | be, or, if a man should maintain that this is not the contradictory,
220 9 | nor the denial is true, maintaining, let us say, that an event
221 | makes
222 12 | be dealt with in the same manner. For it comes about that
223 10 | can be formed with these materials. Two of the four, as regards
224 8 | other hand, one word has two meanings which do not combine to
225 4 | not as being the natural means by which a physical faculty
226 14 | one and the same, which mode of expression forms the
227 9 | was truly predicted at the moment in the past will of necessity
228 13 | to that which can be in motion, the former can exist also
229 4 | similarly in the word "mouse", the part "ouse" has no
230 | much
231 12 | made, we must consider the mutual relation of those affirmations
232 | my
233 2 | nothing is by nature a noun or name-it is only so when it becomes
234 4 | meaning, not as being the natural means by which a physical
235 10 | nothing more be added, is not nearer but rather further from
236 13 | predicating impossibility or non-impossibility follow without change of
237 13 | predicating possibility or non-possibility, those predicating necessity
238 9 | always existent or not always nonexistent. One of the two propositions
239 3 | Such expressions as "is not-healthy", "is not, ill", I do not
240 12 | not white", not "man is not-white". For otherwise, since either
241 3 | they carry the additional note of time, and always form
242 11 | two-footed man; for the notions "animal" and "biped" are
243 5 | are separate and many in number, which indicate many facts,
244 11 | say that because it is the object of opinion, it is; for the
245 9 | take place. There are many obvious instances of this. It is
246 13 | logical impossibilities occur when they are thus arranged.~
247 9 | always been such that their occurrence is a matter of necessity.
248 | once
249 11 | of his question give his opponent the chance of announcing
250 | otherwise
251 11 | We will now explain what ought to be laid down.~Those predicates,
252 4 | word "mouse", the part "ouse" has no meaning in itself,
253 7 | with it a contradiction, owing to the fact that the proposition "
254 3 | be" and "not to be" the participle "being" significant of any
255 14 | generation, and generation is the passing from one extreme to its
256 9 | makes no difference whether people have or have not actually
257 10 | good with regard to such periods of time as lie outside the
258 11 | composite predicate will be permissible. Thus it will be right to
259 4 | natural means by which a physical faculty is realized, but,
260 12 | turn out true to say that a piece of wood is a man that is
261 2 | meaning. Thus in the word "pirate-boat" the word "boat" has no
262 4 | study of rhetoric or of poetry.~
263 14 | concerned with the starting points of generation, and generation
264 4 | sentence is a significant portion of speech, some parts of
265 13 | which are actual but also potential, whose actuality is in nature
266 9 | case of that which exists potentially, but not actually, the rule
267 13 | that which has not this power. Both of that which is walking
268 13 | realization is conditionally practicable, as when a man is said to
269 4 | truth or falsity. Thus a prayer is a sentence, but is neither
270 10 | distinct from those which preceded it, since it employs as
271 3 | i.e. of something either predicable of or present in some other
272 11 | Thus, in the case of those predications which have within them no
273 9 | reverse; that which was truly predicted at the moment in the past
274 9 | denial; while some exhibit a predisposition and general tendency in
275 14 | is bad is composite. For presumably the man who forms that judgement
276 9 | discussed this type also in a previous chapter.~When the subject,
277 13 | absence are the initial principles of existence and non-existence,
278 10 | deal with a condition of privation; the other two do not correspond
279 2 | such as those which brutes produce, are significant, yet none
280 7 | beautiful, also if he is progressing towards beauty he is not
281 14 | pronounces a contrary to that pronounced by the judgement "every
282 1 | either true or false. In proof of this, consider the word "
283 9 | place, though facts should prove the one proposition false,
284 13 | never actualized, but are pure potentialities.~
285 11 | wishes. He must therefore put the question into a more
286 9 | it cannot be said without qualification that all existence and non-existence
287 6 | Indeed there are definitive qualifications besides this, which we make
288 13 | thus arranged.~It may be questioned whether the proposition "
289 11 | question, for a dialectical questioner must by the form of his
290 13 | reference to a state in which realization is conditionally practicable,
291 13 | contingent, and the relation is reciprocal. It follows also that it
292 7 | negative propositions as refer to universals and have a
293 12 | also escape cutting and refrain from walking; and the reason
294 14 | good, we must nevertheless refuse to treat as the contraries
295 13 | and that all else must be regarded as posterior to these.~It
296 10 | materials. Two of the four, as regards their affirmation and denial,
297 12 | these alternatives must be rejected, we must choose the latter.~
298 9 | which is predicated of it relates to the future, the case
299 10 | that the inversion of the relative position of subject and
300 14 | are so or not, they both represent the truth. Yet the subjects
301 11 | dialectical question is a request for an answer, i.e. either
302 2 | cases of a noun is in other respects the same as that of the
303 11 | follows that the predicate resulting from their combination also
304 5 | of his own initiation.~To return: of propositions one kind
305 4 | belongs rather to the study of rhetoric or of poetry.~
306 9 | opposite would still be untrue. Secondly, if it was true to say that
307 | seems
308 12 | capable of walking or of being seen has also a potentiality
309 7 | are universal, as in the sentences "every man is white", "no
310 10 | is the case.~We have thus set out two pairs of opposite
311 7 | man is not white".~We have shown further that a single denial
312 7 | statement might seem at first sight to carry with it a contradiction,
313 12 | that it should be". The similar propositions, such as "it
314 8 | forms may be true or false simultaneously.~
315 11 | the proposition "Homer is so-and-so", say "a poet"; does it
316 | someone
317 6 | meet the casuistries of sophists.~
318 10 | negative propositions of two sorts. Thus in the sentence "man
319 1 | in my treatise about the soul, for it belongs to an investigation
320 9 | thousand years or any other space of time. Wherefore, if through
321 5 | phrase which defines the species "man", if no verb in present,
322 10 | definition, since besides their specific meaning they convey the
323 3 | a predicate, there is no specified name for this variety; but
324 14 | which are concerned with the starting points of generation, and
325 9 | is white, the proposition stating that it is white was true;
326 | still
327 10 | verb "is" does not fit the structure of the sentence (for instance,
328 4 | others belongs rather to the study of rhetoric or of poetry.~
329 10 | propositions. Reference to the subjoined table will make matters
330 13 | investigate the relation subsisting between these propositions
331 14 | that some other attribute subsists which does not subsist,
332 13 | potentiality, namely, the primary substances; a second class consists
333 3 | in and by themselves are substantival and have significance, for
334 5 | words follow in unbroken succession that effects the unity.
335 14 | contrary?~It is an error to suppose that judgements are to be
336 9 | to take trouble, on the supposition that if we should adopt
337 4 | But if we separate one syllable of the word "human" from
338 1 | experiences, which these directly symbolize, are the same for all, as
339 9 | predisposition and general tendency in one direction or the
340 14 | judgements must rather be termed contrary to the true judgements,
341 14 | true; for instance, he who thinks a man is not a man forms
342 14 | to the true who is most thoroughly deceived, for contraries
343 | too
344 11 | I have explained in the Topics, question is not a single
345 | towards
346 14 | therefore error is a like transition.~Now that which is good
347 14 | must nevertheless refuse to treat as the contraries of the
348 1 | however, been discussed in my treatise about the soul, for it belongs
349 9 | to deliberate or to take trouble, on the supposition that
350 12 | of any subject, it will turn out true to say that a piece
351 4 | therefore dismiss all other types of sentence but the proposition,
352 5 | that the words follow in unbroken succession that effects
353 9 | from this that nothing is uncertain or fortuitous, for if it
354 11 | manifest that if man states unconditionally that predicates can always
355 9 | must leave the alternative undecided. One may indeed be more
356 14 | judgement must at the same time understand that that which is good
357 7 | and in the distributed or undistributed sense in which it is understood.~
358 14 | make no difference if we universalize the positive judgement,
359 9 | universals and are stated as universally applicable, or whether they
360 14 | classes of judgement are of unlimited content.~Those judgements
361 13 | which is necessary in the unqualified sense of the word, we can
362 9 | opposite would still be untrue. Secondly, if it was true
363 | up
364 13 | the twofold possibility vanishes. For if a thing may be,
365 3 | specified name for this variety; but let them be called
366 9 | that it would be.~Yet this view leads to an impossible conclusion;
367 14 | be defined as contrary in virtue of the fact that they have
368 | whatever
369 | whenever
370 9 | any other space of time. Wherefore, if through all time the
371 | wherein
372 11 | one of two alternatives, whichever he wishes. He must therefore
373 11 | complexion and musical". Whiteness and being musical do not
374 | why
375 14 | things which differ most widely within the same class. If
376 11 | alternatives, whichever he wishes. He must therefore put the
377 12 | true to say that a piece of wood is a man that is not white.~
378 1 | all men have not the same writing, so all men have not the
379 1 | of mental experience and written words are the symbols of
380 | you