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| Aristotle On Sophistical Refutations IntraText - Concordances (Hapax - words occurring once) |
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501 7 | depend on accent: for the lowering or raising of the voice 502 15| against the view laid down, as Lycophron did when ordered to deliver 503 15| deliver a eulogy upon the lyre. To counter those who demand " 504 17| animal, just as we say that Lysander "belongs to" the Spartans, 505 34| the first start is the main part": and for this reason 506 9 | possible to refute the man who maintains the contradictory of the 507 15| e.g. Cleophon does in the Mandrobulus. They should also break 508 10| argument be? For it will make manifest the state of the case to 509 1 | those who are not clever in manipulating their counters are taken 510 20| there people nowadays put marks at the side to show the 511 33| likewise also it is possible to marshal one’s questions and reasoning 512 24| sense, if B is the child’s master, but the combination depends 513 14| as there we come upon a material solecism, so here we come 514 10| argument digressed, are mathematical reasonings directed against 515 10| to suppose it to have one meaning-as e.g. it may be that "Being" 516 18| reasoning" has a double meaning-for it is used either if a false 517 7 | thought not to alter its meaning-with any phrase, or not with 518 24| that it has a number of meanings-for we also say that man is " 519 17| premiss proposed is usually meant-whether as maxims are (for people 520 24| one and the same solution meets all cases. For since it 521 14| Protagoras used to say that menis ("wrath") and pelex ("helmet") 522 33| murdered the beggar and the merchant." Is he a Good enough-King?" " 523 26| plan sketched above, be met by comparing together the 524 1 | while those made of yellow metal look golden. In the same 525 13| is a "number containing a middle": but there is an "odd number": 526 10| which the answerer had in mind when he granted it. If now 527 24| nor, again, if this is mine and is also a work of art, 528 17| refuted on a side issue is minimized. If, on the other hand, 529 31| For ten figures in "ten minus one" and in "not do", and 530 11| conclusion be true: for it misleads us in regard to the cause: 531 1 | with the force of names misreason both in their own discussions 532 11| also (2) there are those misreasonings which do not conform to 533 8 | cases the moment we add the missing question, we also show up 534 12| are more inclined to make mistakes when they talk at large, 535 11| said,’ a kind of art of money-making from a merely apparent wisdom, 536 24| s argument to prove that motion is impossible. So that even 537 17| effect a proof. The only motive for drawing further distinctions 538 11| arguments, but not with the same motives: and the same argument will 539 15| to secure that "A number multiplied by a large number is a large 540 33| No, indeed; for it has murdered the beggar and the merchant." 541 22| Coriscus" and "Coriscus the musician" there is the problem, Are 542 14| names which end in o and n, have the designation proper 543 5 | descriptions "white" and "naked" and "blind" apply to one 544 5 | synonymous but the same name-and to confute it from the propositions 545 1 | instead. We will begin in the natural order with the first.~That 546 15| should put the question negatively, as though desirous of the 547 33| both the subject and the nerve of the argument, the reasoning 548 5 | observed to wander about at night. There are, however, many 549 12| that a man ought to die nobly rather than to live in pleasure, 550 33| both behind;" and "Is the North wind clear?" "No, indeed; 551 25| same? On the other hand, Not-being, even if it be something, 552 34| But we must not omit to notice what has happened in regard 553 14| wineskin") is a masculine noun, and kline ("bed") a feminine. 554 14| in the case of feminine nouns as well, and in the case 555 13| therefore there is a "number-containing-a-middle number". Also, if snubness 556 14| those names which end in o and n, have the designation 557 25| bound also to be a keeper of oaths absolutely, but he who swears 558 25| is the disobedient man "obedient", though he obeys one particular 559 25| man "obedient", though he obeys one particular command. 560 9 | solutions as well; for the objections to these are the solutions 561 15| time to time to counter objectors, pointing out, supposing 562 17| for in the case of visible objects one is bound of necessity 563 15| prejudice; for when it is obscure what answer one wants to 564 5 | smartly dressed, or that he is observed to wander about at night. 565 30| simple answer encounters no obstacle even though he has committed 566 17| may not be thought to be obstructionists at every turn: then, though 567 1 | for inexperienced people obtain only, as it were, a distant 568 15| detection. Also, with a view to obtaining your premiss, you ought 569 34| impart a form of knowledge to obviate any pain in the feet, were 570 9 | infinite in number, so that obviously demonstrations may be infinite 571 11| false diagram that may be offered in proof of a truth-e.g. 572 12| and that all the men of old supposed the result to come 573 4 | expression to men ou kataputhetai ombro. For they solve the difficulty 574 6 | produced because of the omission in the definition, and if 575 33| silly; but when what is omitted is some extraneous question, 576 4 | together have more than one-either that the letters themselves 577 18| apparent proof and no real one-there must be both the kind of 578 33| arguments that the more incisive ones produce the keenest heart-searching. 579 12| thinks, create abundant opportunity for drawing him into paradox 580 15| down, as Lycophron did when ordered to deliver a eulogy upon 581 7 | distinguish the sameness and otherness of terms, i.e. their unity 582 14| wrath a "destructress" (oulomenen) commits a solecism, though 583 14| calls it a "destructor" (oulomenon) commits no solecism though 584 17| that they must at all costs overthrow the premisses that lie near 585 34| the training given by the paid professors of contentious 586 12| drawing his argument into paradox-for this was the second item 587 34| task of extending us your pardon for the shortcomings of 588 15| ask "Should a man obey his parents in everything, or disobey 589 33| the argument of Zeno and Parmenides by asserting that "One" 590 28| universal follows on its particular-as (e.g.) "animal" follows 591 25| But sometimes it is not particularly good: therefore the same 592 4 | acuter accent. Also, in the passage about Agamemnon’s dream, 593 5 | But in some cases it often passes undetected, viz. in all 594 4 | or what is active by a passive word, or a state by an active 595 22| to have cut" a form of past, activity, and so on with 596 11| from principles that are peculiar to geometry, whereas the 597 34| dialectic) and of examination (peirastic). Inasmuch, however, as 598 14| that menis ("wrath") and pelex ("helmet") are masculine: 599 19| reply in like manner: "Do people-then not understand what they 600 16| some one else, and does not perceive it, is likely to incur this 601 15| while in answering, if a man perceives this being done beforehand, 602 33| time to examine than the period available.~ 603 11| questions: for it does not permit a man to grant whichever 604 33| therefore one is bound to feel perplexed. An argument, then, of this 605 1 | genuine and the sham. For physically some people are in a vigorous 606 20| that there are triremes in Piraeus": and again, "Can a good 607 15| it a large one: for the placing of their contraries close 608 3 | they choose if possible plainly to refute the other party, 609 26| refutation must, according to the plan sketched above, be met by 610 17| will not be thought to be playing any trick, while because 611 11| that it is deceptive and plays foul. For just as a foul 612 5 | man" (singular),"not men" (plural). Or again, where part is 613 10| in the proof that Homer’s poem is a figure through its 614 4 | written discussions and in poetry it is easier. Thus (e.g.) 615 15| time to counter objectors, pointing out, supposing that against 616 25| not good." "Is health, or political power, a good thing?" "Yes. " 617 15| attacks sometimes against positions other than the one stated, 618 33| conclusion, negative or positive as the case may be, that 619 24| a phrase does not become possessed of a number of meanings 620 31| the snub nose is a nose possessing the concavity that belongs 621 22| identical, seeing that we are in possession of the kinds of predications. 622 34| proportion as it is most potent in its influence, so it 623 12| pleasure, and to live in honest poverty rather than in dishonourable 624 11| way of dialectic and the practice of examining: for all undertake 625 4 | him the fulfilment of his prayer", but that he bade the dream 626 34| clear, in the course of what precedes, the number both of the 627 17| ambiguous, no matter how precisely he may have addressed his 628 5 | belong to all of a thing’s predicates and to their subject as 629 17| the other he is to add the prefix "one" or "this", he commits 630 15| put the question without prejudice; for when it is obscure 631 24| belong. One must, however, be prepared to adduce an example of 632 34| on account of the near presence of the art of sophistry ( 633 11| knowledge, but the ignorant pretender. He, then, is a dialectician 634 2 | answerer and which any one who pretends to possess knowledge of 635 31| either substantive nothing prevents it from differentiating 636 33| incisive argument is one which produces the greatest perplexity: 637 24| dog your father?" "Is the product of a small number with a 638 34| them not the art but its products, as though any one professing 639 4 | a stone to-be: ergo you profess-to-be a stone". Also, "Speaking 640 34| products, as though any one professing that he would impart a form 641 11| which dialectic is concerned professionally; and he is a dialectician 642 34| training given by the paid professors of contentious arguments 643 12| second item of the sophist’s programme-in the first place, then, this 644 1 | reasons; and of these the most prolific and usual domain is the 645 20| unless also the word that is pronounced, according to its breathing, 646 4 | difficulty by a change of accent, pronouncing the ou with an acuter accent. 647 20| at the side to show the pronunciation—but the spoken words are 648 34| the most difficult; for in proportion as it is most potent in 649 34| remains to recall our original proposal and to bring our discussion 650 33| is to assent to what is propounded. Therefore it is in syllogistic 651 14| seeming to do so. Suppose, as Protagoras used to say that menis (" 652 6 | character. For the demonstration proves the point about it not qua 653 25| here. "Is that which the prudent man would not wish, an evil?" " 654 34| teaching they gave their pupils was ready but rough. For 655 8 | on one or other of these qualifications: moreover, there is the 656 7 | the difference between a qualified and an absolute statement, 657 4 | the one denotes a certain quality-i.e. a certain condition-while 658 22| suppose some one learns "slow" quick". Then his (the sophist’ 659 24| express "Give me the Iliad" by quoting half a line of it, e.g. " 660 11| For just as a foul in a race is a definite type of fault, 661 5 | colour: also, since after rain the ground is wet in consequence, 662 5 | ground is wet, it has been raining; whereas that does not necessarily 663 7 | accent: for the lowering or raising of the voice upon a phrase 664 7 | type of fallacy is to be ranked among those that depend 665 17| distinctions is that the conclusion reached looks like a refutation. 666 7 | deception is effected the more readily when we are inquiring into 667 34| they gave their pupils was ready but rough. For they used 668 5 | merely the name, but the reality-and a name that is not merely 669 24| X is white, but does not realize that he is musical: for 670 1 | to do so for a number of reasons; and of these the most prolific 671 34| discussion suffice. It remains to recall our original proposal and 672 22| going bad in the course of receipt, to have it sour. But, as 673 5 | then, the false cause be reckoned in among the questions that 674 27| should make one’s error recoil upon the questioner, and 675 12| propositions. The solution recommended as appropriate here, too, 676 6 | refutations as above, or else to refer them all to ignorance of 677 15| secure, people are less refractory. Also when, in dealing with 678 11| show things, it would have refrained from putting questions, 679 15| deceive.~To counter those who refuse to grant whatever they suppose 680 17| and plead in excuse for refusing to grant him some of them 681 17| persons, to treat them not as refuting, but as merely appearing 682 12| were formerly: for people rejoin with the question, "What 683 34| by tradition, there must remain for all of you, or for our 684 34| easier to add and develop the remainder in connexion with it. This 685 34| foregoing discussion suffice. It remains to recall our original proposal 686 24| Yet, as we have already remarked, the correction of arguments 687 17| although among disputants such remarks are loosely deemed to be 688 17| one has denied. For the remedy which some people have for 689 15| to have done so, for they remember the induction and assume 690 1 | depends on the faculty to render an answer, and the other 691 25| word "absolutely" is to be rendered-with "true" or with "false". 692 13| same expression will be repeated three times, "double of 693 31| those who draw one into repeating the same thing a number 694 12| nature and law: for the law represents the opinion of the majority, 695 16| is used, and what kind of resemblances and what kind of differences 696 14| to einai). Also, Solecism resembles in a certain way those refutations 697 11| former case those who are resolved to win at all costs snatch 698 33| but the argument is quite respectable, though the questioner has 699 11| the same condition in all respects as the drawer of a false 700 1 | these things. For reasoning rests on certain statements such 701 10| is a true proof.~But, to return to the point whence our 702 33| demolition, and yet it does not reveal clearly which it is of the 703 5 | on consequences. For when rhetoricians wish to show that a man 704 12| rather than in dishonourable riches; but they wish the opposite. 705 1 | to be so by blowing and rigging themselves out as the tribesmen 706 6 | its angles equal to two right-angles, and it happens to be a 707 3 | argue as competitors and rivals to the death. These are 708 33| enough-King?" "No, indeed; a Rob-son": and so with the great 709 12| inquiry thus invited gives room for an attack.~A rule specially 710 14| xulon ("log"), schoinion ("rope"); those which do not end 711 22| while again "to say", "to run", "to see" are like one 712 1 | tribesmen do their victims for sacrifice; and some people are beautiful 713 29| thought it, but for the sake of the argument, whereas 714 34| our investigation is in a satisfactory condition compared with 715 6 | same thing, in order to satisfy any one who asks why you 716 20| meaning: for it is true to say-in-the-present-moment that "you are born", but 717 14| chattel, e.g. xulon ("log"), schoinion ("rope"); those which do 718 12| theses" of the various schools among your propositions. 719 6 | that the experts and men of science generally suffer refutation 720 9 | refutations we shall have to have scientific knowledge of everything: 721 5 | Does the earth consist of sea, or the sky?" But in some 722 22| in writing that you are seated-a false statement, though 723 19| place unless the sophist secures as well the contradiction 724 1 | and the other upon the securing of one. Those, then, who 725 13| Paradoxes, then, you should seek to elicit by means of these 726 1 | art of the sophist is the semblance of wisdom without the reality, 727 5 | attend opinions based on sense-perception. For people often suppose 728 10| clearly cannot describe two separate classes of argument. For, 729 28| that is not so; for the sequence is vice versa.~ 730 24| nearly, suppose that "A servant is good of the wicked"; 731 11| profess to know things. What serves them here is the general 732 6 | above manner, we ought to set "Defective definition" as 733 4 | independent of language there are seven kinds:~(1) that which depends 734 1 | between the genuine and the sham. For physically some people 735 15| foul, and to be altogether shameless. Moreover, there is the 736 33| this is the one with the sharpest fang. Now perplexity is 737 34| to teach a man the art of shoe-making or the sources whence he 738 34| him with several kinds of shoes of all sorts: for he has 739 34| extending us your pardon for the shortcomings of the inquiry, and for 740 20| proving "Then you know now in Sicily that there are triremes 741 31| e.g. that "double" is a significant term apart from the whole 742 5 | In rhetoric proofs from signs are based on consequences. 743 33| generally thought to be the silliest form of fallacy, some are 744 25| command. The argument is similar, also, as regards the problem 745 24| line of it, e.g. "Give me "Sing, goddess, of the wrath...""~ 746 23| each thing that he knows, singly? but not the things that 747 5 | he will strike a man" (singular),"not men" (plural). Or 748 4 | following: "A man can walk while sitting, and can write while not 749 4 | which depend on language are six in number: they are ambiguity, 750 26| must, according to the plan sketched above, be met by comparing 751 5 | earth consist of sea, or the sky?" But in some cases it is 752 22| suppose some one learns "slow" quick". Then his (the sophist’ 753 17| them is true, grant the smaller one: for the larger the 754 34| its influence, so it is smallest in its compass and therefore 755 5 | life, viz. that the man is smartly dressed, or that he is observed 756 11| resolved to win at all costs snatch at everything, and so in 757 6 | per accidens; for both "snow" and the "swan" are the 758 14| and in the case of the so-called "chattels" that have feminine 759 34| how to solve arguments and solecisms-on all these things let the 760 34| the use of what materials solescism is brought about, and how 761 18| deal of difference between solving an argument when being subjected 762 | someone 763 11| contentious argument stands in somewhat the same relation to the 764 24| X is your father", or "son", or "slave". Yet it is 765 34| several kinds of shoes of all sorts: for he has helped him to 766 22| course of receipt, to have it sour. But, as was said also above,’ 767 5 | necessarily is. This is also the source of the deceptions that attend 768 17| Spartans, because he is a Spartan. It is evident, then, that 769 17| Lysander "belongs to" the Spartans, because he is a Spartan. 770 4 | meaning: it may mean that the speaker is silent or that the things 771 12| room for an attack.~A rule specially appropriate for showing 772 31| knowledge" the same thing in a specific branch of it (suppose it, 773 16| we still are at a loss to split the argument apart.~ 774 34| development which later springs out of them. For it may 775 9 | but to people of a certain stamp; for it is an indefinite 776 6 | refutation" is, and make that our starting-point: for it is possible to analyse 777 9 | study. For if we grasp the startingpoints of the accepted proofs on 778 6 | kind. Now since a proof starts from propositions and refutation 779 13| things of which they are the states or affections or what not, 780 24| man in the mask"? "Is the statue your work of art?" or "Is 781 25| decisions a man comes to on the strength of his personal opinion, 782 15| and worse and better.~A strong appearance of having been 783 34| for all of you, or for our students, the task of extending us 784 4 | 4~There are two styles of refutation: for some 785 14| contentious arguments, and the subdivisions of those types, and the 786 11| in its conformity to the subject-matter, so that it is deceptive 787 11| geometry, the argument which is subordinate to the principles of dialectic 788 31| but when added to either substantive nothing prevents it from 789 14| and likewise also they substitute one inflection for another. 790 8 | that which depends on the substitution of an accident for an essential 791 29| look and see if upon its subtraction the absurdity follows none 792 34| so to speak) of a long succession of men who have advanced 793 25| fully the things he has suffered; and these are fallacies. 794 34| the foregoing discussion suffice. It remains to recall our 795 10| put his question except by suggesting a distinction-suppose one’ 796 24| Possibly, indeed, the present suggestion may very well apply in some 797 15| resemblance of the particulars to suit your purpose; for resemblance 798 9 | apparently dialectical, or suitable for an examination.~ 799 1 | are finite and so is the sum-total of formulae, while things 800 25| man who gave the decision supports: for because it is just 801 16| their weakness, creates a suspicion, making it seem as though 802 25| oaths absolutely, but he who swears that he will break his oath, 803 22| received; e.g. to have received sweet wine, but then, owing to 804 1 | discussed: we use their names as symbols instead of them; and therefore 805 33| most expert (and it is a symptom of this that they often 806 5 | name that is not merely synonymous but the same name-and to 807 17| drawing a distinction: the tacit understandings implied in 808 32| him is real"." No: rather, talking of a stone means not saying 809 34| the feet, were then not to teach a man the art of shoe-making 810 34| them. And therefore the teaching they gave their pupils was 811 27| generally held, but should tell him the truth. Suppose, 812 16| inexperience that put him out of temper.~Answerers may clearly see 813 | thee 814 34| faculty of reasoning about any theme put before us from the most 815 17| asking "Are Callias and Themistocles musical?" and what one might 816 34| Thrasymachus after Tisias, and Theodorus next to him, while several 817 12| collection of the special "theses" of the various schools 818 20| evil is both evil and a thing-to-learn, so that evil is an evil-thing-to-learn, 819 22| adds the rest by himself, thinking the meaning to be alike: 820 16| also on many occasions. Thirdly and lastly, they further 821 34| part of the work had been thoroughly done before, while part 822 24| if he proved his case ten thousand times over, still this is 823 34| the first founders, then Thrasymachus after Tisias, and Theodorus 824 1 | things made of litharge and tin seem to be of silver, while 825 17| the one person the simple title "Coriscus", while to the 826 14| depend upon the word "this" (tode), and upon occasions when 827 34| that have been developed by tradition, there must remain for all 828 18| when not: for to foresee traps is difficult, whereas to 829 22| learns it. Also, "Does a man tread upon what he walks through? " 830 23| collectively." Also a man treads, perhaps, on any thing he 831 5 | refutation which depends upon treating as cause what is not a cause, 832 34| contentious arguments was like the treatment of the matter by Gorgias. 833 11| undertake to some extent a rough trial of those who profess to 834 1 | rigging themselves out as the tribesmen do their victims for sacrifice; 835 17| If, again, the sophist tries to secure that has a contrary 836 20| in Sicily that there are triremes in Piraeus": and again, " 837 30| they do not, then there is trouble, so that one must beware 838 25| but it appears to be a troublesome question because it is not 839 2 | learner should take things on trust): dialectical arguments 840 11| be offered in proof of a truth-e.g. Hippocrates’ figure or 841 17| point on which the argument turned, they often find themselves 842 7 | of phrases because we are unable to divide the ambiguous 843 17| people have for this is quite unavailing. They say, not that Coriscus 844 10| makes this claim seems to be unaware of the difference between 845 17| a distinction: the tacit understandings implied in our statements, 846 15| than the one stated, on the understood condition that one cannot 847 11| practice of examining: for all undertake to some extent a rough trial 848 15| highly sophistical of all the unfair tricks of questioners, when 849 3 | the argument, to use an ungrammatical expression; or, as a last 850 10| double meaning? "Are the units in four equal to the twos? 851 10| known, while others are unknown". Thus the man who makes 852 4 | against those who criticize as unnatural his expression to men ou 853 16| so that supposing we are unpractised, even though a point be 854 1 | money from an apparent but unreal wisdom); for them, then, 855 18| properly reasoned, or is unreasoned; and next, whether the conclusion 856 6 | refutation at the hand of the unscientific: for the latter meet the 857 5 | the charge in question is untrue. It happens like this also 858 4 | not easy to construct in unwritten discussion; in written discussions 859 1 | these the most prolific and usual domain is the argument that 860 34| committing a fallacy and make him utter paradoxes; moreover, by 861 33| about, but even leaves it vague whether it is on the conclusion 862 4 | are so. There are three varieties of these ambiguities and 863 12| special "theses" of the various schools among your propositions. 864 22| what he drinks, but the vessel out of which he drinks. 865 1 | as the tribesmen do their victims for sacrifice; and some 866 1 | physically some people are in a vigorous condition, while others 867 8 | original point to be proved, in violation of the clause "without reckoning 868 5 | apparent. One might, with some violence, bring this fallacy into 869 17| sense: for in the case of visible objects one is bound of 870 7 | lowering or raising of the voice upon a phrase is thought 871 4 | that "it is possible to walk-while-sitting" and write while not writing]. 872 5 | or that he is observed to wander about at night. There are, 873 34| discoveries thereof your warm thanks.~THE END~ ~ 874 16| definitely point out their weakness, creates a suspicion, making 875 25| upon this." Is health, or wealth, a good thing?" "Yes." " 876 24| of a man approaching, or wearing a mask, is "to be approaching" 877 4 | on other assumptions as well-that this is the number of ways 878 10| possible for any argument whatsoever; for the fact of being directed 879 | whereby 880 | wherein 881 17| some, e.g. to any matters whereon opinion is divided (for 882 22| is the case improved one whit even if one were to call 883 24| A servant is good of the wicked"; though perhaps it is not 884 12| their hidden opinions.~The widest range of common-place argument 885 11| seem to the latter to go wildly astray from them. All, then, 886 33| behind;" and "Is the North wind clear?" "No, indeed; for 887 22| e.g. to have received sweet wine, but then, owing to its 888 14| to chattels: e.g. askos ("wineskin") is a masculine noun, and 889 | within 890 34| therefore it is not to be wondered at that the art has attained 891 33| because each of them, when worked with different terms, is 892 15| relatively and absolutely, and worse and better.~A strong appearance 893 4 | one combines the words "to write-while-not-writing": for then it means that 894 14| proper to a chattel, e.g. xulon ("log"), schoinion ("rope"); 895 33| are you bound?" "To the yard arm"; and "Which cow will 896 11| they will not both of them yield a proof. Dialectic, on the 897 4 | Agamemnon’s dream, they say that Zeus did not himself say "We