BOOK III

                     PROEM

  O thou who first uplifted in such dark

  So clear a torch aloft, who first shed light

  Upon the profitable ends of man,

  O thee I follow, glory of the Greeks,

  And set my footsteps squarely planted now

  Even in the impress and the marks of thine -

  Less like one eager to dispute the palm,

  More as one craving out of very love

  That I may copy thee! - for how should swallow

  Contend with swans or what compare could be

  In a race between young kids with tumbling legs

  And the strong might of the horse? Our father thou,

  And finder-out of truth, and thou to us

  Suppliest a father's precepts; and from out

  Those scriven leaves of thine, renowned soul

  (Like bees that sip of all in flowery wolds),

  We feed upon thy golden sayings all -

  Golden, and ever worthiest endless life.

  For soon as ever thy planning thought that sprang

  From god-like mind begins its loud proclaim

  Of nature's courses, terrors of the brain

  Asunder flee, the ramparts of the world

  Dispart away, and through the void entire

  I see the movements of the universe.

  Rises to vision the majesty of gods,

  And their abodes of everlasting calm

  Which neither wind may shake nor rain-cloud splash,

  Nor snow, congealed by sharp frosts, may harm

  With its white downfall: ever, unclouded sky

  O'er roofs, and laughs with far-diffused light.

  And nature gives to them their all, nor aught

  May ever pluck their peace of mind away.

  But nowhere to my vision rise no more

  The vaults of Acheron, though the broad earth

  Bars me no more from gazing down o'er all

  Which under our feet is going on below

  Along the void. O, here in these affairs

  Some new divine delight and trembling awe

  Takes hold through me, that thus by power of thine

  Nature, so plain and manifest at last,

  Hath been on every side laid bare to man!

    And since I've taught already of what sort

  The seeds of all things are, and how, distinct

  In divers forms, they flit of own accord,

  Stirred with a motion everlasting on,

  And in what mode things be from them create,

  Now, after such matters, should my verse, meseems,

  Make clear the nature of the mind and soul,

  And drive that dread of Acheron without,

  Headlong, which so confounds our human life

  Unto its deeps, pouring o'er all that is

  The black of death, nor leaves not anything

  To prosper - a liquid and unsullied joy.

  For as to what men sometimes will affirm:

  That more than Tartarus (the realm of death)

  They fear diseases and a life of shame,

  And know the substance of the soul is blood,

  Or rather wind (if haply thus their whim),

  And so need naught of this our science, then

  Thou well may'st note from what's to follow now

  That more for glory do they braggart forth

  Than for belief. For mark these very same:

  Exiles from country, fugitives afar

  From sight of men, with charges foul attaint,

  Abased with every wretchedness, they yet

  Live, and where'er the wretches come, they yet

  Make the ancestral sacrifices there,

  Butcher the black sheep, and to gods below

  Offer the honours, and in bitter case

  Turn much more keenly to religion.

  Wherefore, it's surer testing of a man

  In doubtful perils - mark him as he is

  Amid adversities; for then alone

  Are the true voices conjured from his breast,

  The mask off-stripped, reality behind.

  And greed, again, and the blind lust of honours

  Which force poor wretches past the bounds of law,

  And, oft allies and ministers of crime,

  To push through nights and days of the hugest toil

  To rise untrammelled to the peaks of power -

  These wounds of life in no mean part are kept

  Festering and open by this fright of death.

  For ever we see fierce Want and foul Disgrace

  Dislodged afar from secure life and sweet,

  Like huddling Shapes before the doors of death.

  And whilst, from these, men wish to scape afar,

  Driven by false terror, and afar remove,

  With civic blood a fortune they amass,

  They double their riches, greedy, heapers-up

  Of corpse on corpse they have a cruel laugh

  For the sad burial of a brother-born,

  And hatred and fear of tables of their kin.

  Likewise, through this same terror, envy oft

  Makes them to peak because before their eyes

  That man is lordly, that man gazed upon

  Who walks begirt with honour glorious,

  Whilst they in filth and darkness roll around;

  Some perish away for statues and a name,

  And oft to that degree, from fright of death,

  Will hate of living and beholding light

  Take hold on humankind that they inflict

  Their own destruction with a gloomy heart -

  Forgetful that this fear is font of cares,

  This fear the plague upon their sense of shame,

  And this that breaks the ties of comradry

  And oversets all reverence and faith,

  Mid direst slaughter. For long ere to-day

  Often were traitors to country and dear parents

  Through quest to shun the realms of Acheron.

  For just as children tremble and fear all

  In the viewless dark, so even we at times

  Dread in the light so many things that be

  No whit more fearsome than what children feign,

  Shuddering, will be upon them in the dark.

  This terror, then, this darkness of the mind,

  Not sunrise with its flaring spokes of light,

  Nor glittering arrows of morning sun disperse,

  But only Nature's aspect and her law.

                 NATURE AND COMPOSITION

                     OF THE MIND

    First, then, I say, the mind which oft we call

  The intellect, wherein is seated life's

  Counsel and regimen, is part no less

  Of man than hand and foot and eyes are parts

  Of one whole breathing creature. But some hold

  That sense of mind is in no fixed part seated,

  But is of body some one vital state, -

  Named "harmony" by Greeks, because thereby

  We live with sense, though intellect be not

  In any part: as oft the body is said

  To have good health (when health, however, 's not

  One part of him who has it), so they place

  The sense of mind in no fixed part of man.

  Mightily, diversly, meseems they err.

  Often the body palpable and seen

  Sickens, while yet in some invisible part

  We feel a pleasure; oft the other way,

  A miserable in mind feels pleasure still

  Throughout his body - quite the same as when

  A foot may pain without a pain in head.

  Besides, when these our limbs are given o'er

  To gentle sleep and lies the burdened frame

  At random void of sense, a something else

  Is yet within us, which upon that time

  Bestirs itself in many a wise, receiving

  All motions of joy and phantom cares of heart.

  Now, for to see that in man's members dwells

  Also the soul, and body ne'er is wont

  To feel sensation by a "harmony"

  Take this in chief: the fact that life remains

  Oft in our limbs, when much of body's gone;

  Yet that same life, when particles of heat,

  Though few, have scattered been, and through the mouth

  Air has been given forth abroad, forthwith

  Forever deserts the veins, and leaves the bones.

  Thus mayst thou know that not all particles

  Perform like parts, nor in like manner all

  Are props of weal and safety: rather those -

  The seeds of wind and exhalations warm -

  Take care that in our members life remains.

  Therefore a vital heat and wind there is

  Within the very body, which at death

  Deserts our frames. And so, since nature of mind

  And even of soul is found to be, as 'twere,

  A part of man, give over "harmony" -

  Name to musicians brought from Helicon, -

  Unless themselves they filched it otherwise,

  To serve for what was lacking name till then.

  Whate'er it be, they're welcome to it - thou,

  Hearken my other maxims.

                                  Mind and soul,

  I say, are held conjoined one with other,

  And form one single nature of themselves;

  But chief and regnant through the frame entire

  Is still that counsel which we call the mind,

  And that cleaves seated in the midmost breast.

  Here leap dismay and terror; round these haunts

  Be blandishments of joys; and therefore here

  The intellect, the mind. The rest of soul,

  Throughout the body scattered, but obeys -

  Moved by the nod and motion of the mind.

  This, for itself, sole through itself, hath thought;

  This for itself hath mirth, even when the thing

  That moves it, moves nor soul nor body at all.

  And as, when head or eye in us is smit

  By assailing pain, we are not tortured then

  Through all the body, so the mind alone

  Is sometimes smitten, or livens with a joy,

  Whilst yet the soul's remainder through the limbs

  And through the frame is stirred by nothing new.

  But when the mind is moved by shock more fierce,

  We mark the whole soul suffering all at once

  Along man's members: sweats and pallors spread

  Over the body, and the tongue is broken,

  And fails the voice away, and ring the ears,

  Mists blind the eyeballs, and the joints collapse, -

  Aye, men drop dead from terror of the mind.

  Hence, whoso will can readily remark

  That soul conjoined is with mind, and, when

  'Tis strook by influence of the mind, forthwith

  In turn it hits and drives the body too.

    And this same argument establisheth

  That nature of mind and soul corporeal is:

  For when 'tis seen to drive the members on,

  To snatch from sleep the body, and to change

  The countenance, and the whole state of man

  To rule and turn, - what yet could never be

  Sans contact, and sans body contact fails -

  Must we not grant that mind and soul consist

  Of a corporeal nature? - And besides

  Thou markst that likewise with this body of ours

  Suffers the mind and with our body feels.

  If the dire speed of spear that cleaves the bones

  And bares the inner thews hits not the life,

  Yet follows a fainting and a foul collapse,

  And, on the ground, dazed tumult in the mind,

  And whiles a wavering will to rise afoot.

  So nature of mind must be corporeal, since

  From stroke and spear corporeal 'tis in throes.

    Now, of what body, what components formed

  Is this same mind I will go on to tell.

  First, I aver, 'tis superfine, composed

  Of tiniest particles - that such the fact

  Thou canst perceive, if thou attend, from this:

  Nothing is seen to happen with such speed

  As what the mind proposes and begins;

  Therefore the same bestirs itself more swiftly

  Than aught whose nature's palpable to eyes.

  But what's so agile must of seeds consist

  Most round, most tiny, that they may be moved,

  When hit by impulse slight. So water moves,

  In waves along, at impulse just the least -

  Being create of little shapes that roll;

  But, contrariwise, the quality of honey

  More stable is, its liquids more inert,

  More tardy its flow; for all its stock of matter

  Cleaves more together, since, indeed, 'tis made

  Of atoms not so smooth, so fine, and round.

  For the light breeze that hovers yet can blow

  High heaps of poppy-seed away for thee

  Downward from off the top; but, contrariwise,

  A pile of stones or spiny ears of wheat

  It can't at all. Thus, in so far as bodies

  Are small and smooth, is their mobility;

  But, contrariwise, the heavier and more rough,

  The more immovable they prove. Now, then,

  Since nature of mind is movable so much,

  Consist it must of seeds exceeding small

  And smooth and round. Which fact once known to thee,

  Good friend, will serve thee opportune in else.

  This also shows the nature of the same,

  How nice its texture, in how small a space

  'Twould go, if once compacted as a pellet:

  When death's unvexed repose gets hold on man

  And mind and soul retire, thou markest there

  From the whole body nothing ta'en in form,

  Nothing in weight. Death grants ye everything,

  But vital sense and exhalation hot.

  Thus soul entire must be of smallmost seeds,

  Twined through the veins, the vitals, and the thews,

  Seeing that, when 'tis from whole body gone,

  The outward figuration of the limbs

  Is unimpaired and weight fails not a whit.

  Just so, when vanished the bouquet of wine,

  Or when an unguent's perfume delicate

  Into the winds away departs, or when

  From any body savour's gone, yet still

  The thing itself seems minished naught to eyes,

  Thereby, nor aught abstracted from its weight -

  No marvel, because seeds many and minute

  Produce the savours and the redolence

  In the whole body of the things. And so,

  Again, again, nature of mind and soul

  'Tis thine to know created is of seeds

  The tiniest ever, since at flying-forth

  It beareth nothing of the weight away.

    Yet fancy not its nature simple so.

  For an impalpable aura, mixed with heat,

  Deserts the dying, and heat draws off the air;

  And heat there's none, unless commixed with air:

  For, since the nature of all heat is rare,

  Athrough it many seeds of air must move.

  Thus nature of mind is triple; yet those all

  Suffice not for creating sense - since mind

  Accepteth not that aught of these can cause

  Sense-bearing motions, and much less the thoughts

  A man revolves in mind. So unto these

  Must added be a somewhat, and a fourth;

  That somewhat's altogether void of name;

  Than which existeth naught more mobile, naught

  More an impalpable, of elements

  More small and smooth and round. That first transmits

  Sense-bearing motions through the frame, for that

  Is roused the first, composed of little shapes;

  Thence heat and viewless force of wind take up

  The motions, and thence air, and thence all things

  Are put in motion; the blood is strook, and then

  The vitals all begin to feel, and last

  To bones and marrow the sensation comes -

  Pleasure or torment. Nor will pain for naught

  Enter so far, nor a sharp ill seep through,

  But all things be perturbed to that degree

  That room for life will fail, and parts of soul

  Will scatter through the body's every pore.

  Yet as a rule, almost upon the skin

  These motion aIl are stopped, and this is why

  We have the power to retain our life.

    Now in my eagerness to tell thee how

  They are commixed, through what unions fit

  They function so, my country's pauper-speech

  Constrains me sadly. As I can, however,

  I'll touch some points and pass. In such a wise

  Course these primordials 'mongst one another

  With intermotions that no one can be

  From other sundered, nor its agency

  Perform, if once divided by a space;

  Like many powers in one body they work.

  As in the flesh of any creature still

  Is odour and savour and a certain warmth,

  And yet from an of these one bulk of body

  Is made complete, so, viewless force of wind

  And warmth and air, commingled, do create

  One nature, by that mobile energy

  Assisted which from out itself to them

  Imparts initial motion, whereby first

  Sense-bearing motion along the vitals springs.

  For lurks this essence far and deep and under,

  Nor in our body is aught more shut from view,

  And 'tis the very soul of all the soul.

  And as within our members and whole frame

  The energy of mind and power of soul

  Is mixed and latent, since create it is

  Of bodies small and few, so lurks this fourth,

  This essence void of name, composed of small,

  And seems the very soul of all the soul,

  And holds dominion o'er the body all.

  And by like reason wind and air and heat

  Must function so, commingled through the frame,

  And now the one subside and now another

  In interchange of dominance, that thus

  From all of them one nature be produced,

  Lest heat and wind apart, and air apart,

  Make sense to perish, by disseverment.

  There is indeed in mind that heat it gets

  When seething in rage, and flashes from the eyes

  More swiftly fire; there is, again, that wind,

  Much, and so cold, companion of all dread,

  Which rouses the shudder in the shaken frame;

  There is no less that state of air composed,

  Making the tranquil breast, the serene face.

  But more of hot have they whose restive hearts,

  Whose minds of passion quickly seethe in rage -

  Of which kind chief are fierce abounding lions,

  Who often with roaring burst the breast o'erwrought,

  Unable to hold the surging wrath within;

  But the cold mind of stags has more of wind,

  And speedier through their inwards rouses up

  The icy currents which make their members quake.

  But more the oxen live by tranquil air,

  Nor e'er doth smoky torch of wrath applied,

  O'erspreading with shadows of a darkling murk,

  Rouse them too far; nor will they stiffen stark,

  Pierced through by icy javelins of fear;

  But have their place half-way between the two -

  Stags and fierce lions. Thus the race of men:

  Though training make them equally refined,

  It leaves those pristine vestiges behind

  Of each mind's nature. Nor may we suppose

  Evil can e'er be rooted up so far

  That one man's not more given to fits of wrath,

  Another's not more quickly touched by fear,

  A third not more long-suffering than he should.

  And needs must differ in many things besides

  The varied natures and resulting habits

  Of humankind - of which not now can I

  Expound the hidden causes, nor find names

  Enough for all the divers shapes of those

  Primordials whence this variation springs.

  But this meseems I'm able to declare:

  Those vestiges of natures left behind

  Which reason cannot quite expel from us

  Are still so slight that naught prevents a man

  From living a life even worthy of the gods.

    So then this soul is kept by all the body,

  Itself the body's guard, and source of weal;

  For they with common roots cleave each to each,

  Nor can be torn asunder without death.

  Not easy 'tis from lumps of frankincense

  To tear their fragrance forth, without its nature

  Perishing likewise: so, not easy 'tis

  From all the body nature of mind and soul

  To draw away, without the whole dissolved.

  With seeds so intertwined even from birth,

  They're dowered conjointly with a partner-life;

  No energy of body or mind, apart,

  Each of itself without the other's power,

  Can have sensation; but our sense, enkindled

  Along the vitals, to flame is blown by both

  With mutual motions. Besides the body alone

  Is nor begot nor grows, nor after death

  Seen to endure. For not as water at times

  Gives off the alien heat, nor is thereby

  Itself destroyed, but unimpaired remains -

  Not thus, I say, can the deserted frame

  Bear the dissevering of its joined soul,

  But, rent and ruined, moulders all away.

  Thus the joint contact of the body and soul

  Learns from their earliest age the vital motions,

  Even when still buried in the mother's womb;

  So no dissevering can hap to them,

  Without their bane and ill. And thence mayst see

  That, as conjoined is their source of weal,

  Conjoined also must their nature be.

    If one, moreover, denies that body feel,

  And holds that soul, through all the body mixed,

  Takes on this motion which we title "sense"

  He battles in vain indubitable facts:

  For who'll explain what body's feeling is,

  Except by what the public fact itself

  Has given and taught us? "But when soul is parted,

  Body's without all sense." True! - loses what

  Was even in its life-time not its own;

  And much beside it loses, when soul's driven

  Forth from that life-time. Or, to say that eyes

  Themselves can see no thing, but through the same

  The mind looks forth, as out of opened doors,

  Is - a hard saying; since the feel in eyes

  Says the reverse. For this itself draws on

  And forces into the pupils of our eyes

  Our consciousness. And note the case when often

  We lack the power to see refulgent things,

  Because our eyes are hampered by their light -

  With a mere doorway this would happen not;

  For, since it is our very selves that see,

  No open portals undertake the toil.

  Besides, if eyes of ours but act as doors,

  Methinks that, were our sight removed, the mind

  Ought then still better to behold a thing -

  When even the door-posts have been cleared away.

    Herein in these affairs nowise take up

  What honoured sage, Democritus, lays down -

  That proposition, that primordials

  Of body and mind, each super-posed on each,

  Vary alternately and interweave

  The fabric of our members. For not only

  Are the soul-elements smaller far than those

  Which this our body and inward parts compose,

  But also are they in their number less,

  And scattered sparsely through our frame. And thus

  This canst thou guarantee: soul's primal germs

  Maintain between them intervals as large

  At least as are the smallest bodies, which,

  When thrown against us, in our body rouse

  Sense-bearing motions. Hence it comes that we

  Sometimes don't feel alighting on our frames

  The clinging dust, or chalk that settles soft;

  Nor mists of night, nor spider's gossamer

  We feel against us, when, upon our road,

  Its net entangles us, nor on our head

  The dropping of its withered garmentings;

  Nor bird-feathers, nor vegetable down,

  Flying about, so light they barely fall;

  Nor feel the steps of every crawling thing,

  Nor each of all those footprints on our skin

  Of midges and the like. To that degree

  Must many primal germs be stirred in us

  Ere once the seeds of soul that through our frame

  Are intermingled 'gin to feel that those

  Primordials of the body have been strook,

  And ere, in pounding with such gaps between,

  They clash, combine and leap apart in turn.

    But mind is more the keeper of the gates,

  Hath more dominion over life than soul.

  For without intellect and mind there's not

  One part of soul can rest within our frame

  Least part of time; companioning, it goes

  With mind into the winds away, and leaves

  The icy members in the cold of death.

  But he whose mind and intellect abide

  Himself abides in life. However much

  The trunk be mangled, with the limbs lopped off,

  The soul withdrawn and taken from the limbs,

  Still lives the trunk and draws the vital air.

  Even when deprived of all but all the soul,

  Yet will it linger on and cleave to life, -

  Just as the power of vision still is strong,

  If but the pupil shall abide unharmed,

  Even when the eye around it's sorely rent -

  Provided only thou destroyest not

  Wholly the ball, but, cutting round the pupil,

  Leavest that pupil by itself behind -

  For more would ruin sight. But if that centre,

  That tiny part of eye, be eaten through,

  Forthwith the vision fails and darkness comes,

  Though in all else the unblemished ball be clear.

  'Tis by like compact that the soul and mind

  Are each to other bound forevermore.

                THE SOUL IS MORTAL

    Now come: that thou mayst able be to know

  That minds and the light souls of all that live

  Have mortal birth and death, I will go on

  Verses to build meet for thy rule of life,

  Sought after long, discovered with sweet toil.

  But under one name I'd have thee yoke them both;

  And when, for instance, I shall speak of soul,

  Teaching the same to be but mortal, think

  Thereby I'm speaking also of the mind -

  Since both are one, a substance interjoined.

    First, then, since I have taught how soul exists

  A subtle fabric, of particles minute,

  Made up from atoms smaller much than those

  Of water's liquid damp, or fog, or smoke,

  So in mobility it far excels,

  More prone to move, though strook by lighter cause

  Even moved by images of smoke or fog -

  As where we view, when in our sleeps we're lulled,

  The altars exhaling steam and smoke aloft -

  For, beyond doubt, these apparitions come

  To us from outward. Now, then, since thou seest,

  Their liquids depart, their waters flow away,

  When jars are shivered, and since fog and smoke

  Depart into the winds away, believe

  The soul no less is shed abroad and dies

  More quickly far, more quickly is dissolved

  Back to its primal bodies, when withdrawn

  From out man's members it has gone away.

  For, sure, if body (container of the same

  Like as a jar), when shivered from some cause,

  And rarefied by loss of blood from veins,

  Cannot for longer hold the soul, how then

  Thinkst thou it can be held by any air -

  A stuff much rarer than our bodies be?

    Besides we feel that mind to being comes

  Along with body, with body grows and ages.

  For just as children totter round about

  With frames infirm and tender, so there follows

  A weakling wisdom in their minds; and then,

  Where years have ripened into robust powers,

  Counsel is also greater, more increased

  The power of mind; thereafter, where already

  The body's shattered by master-powers of eld,

  And fallen the frame with its enfeebled powers,

  Thought hobbles, tongue wanders, and the mind gives way;

  All fails, all's lacking at the selfsame time.

  Therefore it suits that even the soul's dissolved,

  Like smoke, into the lofty winds of air;

  Since we behold the same to being come

  Along with body and grow, and, as I've taught,

  Crumble and crack, therewith outworn by eld.

    Then, too, we see, that, just as body takes

  Monstrous diseases and the dreadful pain,

  So mind its bitter cares, the grief, the fear;

  Wherefore it tallies that the mind no less

  Partaker is of death; for pain and disease

  Are both artificers of death, - as well

  We've learned by the passing of many a man ere now.

  Nay, too, in diseases of body, often the mind

  Wanders afield; for 'tis beside itself,

  And crazed it speaks, or many a time it sinks,

  With eyelids closing and a drooping nod,

  In heavy drowse, on to eternal sleep;

  From whence nor hears it any voices more,

  Nor able is to know the faces here

  Of those about him standing with wet cheeks

  Who vainly call him back to light and life.

  Wherefore mind too, confess we must, dissolves,

  Seeing, indeed, contagions of disease

  Enter into the same. Again, O why,

  When the strong wine has entered into man,

  And its diffused fire gone round the veins,

  Why follows then a heaviness of limbs,

  A tangle of the legs as round he reels,

  A stuttering tongue, an intellect besoaked,

  Eyes all aswim, and hiccups, shouts, and brawls

  And whatso else is of that ilk? - Why this? -

  If not that violent and impetuous wine

  Is wont to confound the soul within the body?

  But whatso can confounded be and balked,

  Gives proof, that if a hardier cause got in,

  'Twould hap that it would perish then, bereaved

  Of any life thereafter. And, moreover,

  Often will some one in a sudden fit,

  As if by stroke of lightning, tumble down

  Before our eyes, and sputter foam, and grunt,

  Blither, and twist about with sinews taut,

  Gasp up in starts, and weary out his limbs

  With tossing round. No marvel, since distract

  Through frame by violence of disease.

  Confounds, he foams, as if to vomit soul,

  As on the salt sea boil the billows round

  Under the master might of winds. And now

  A groan's forced out, because his limbs are griped

  But, in the main, because the seeds of voice

  Are driven forth and carried in a mass

  Outwards by mouth, where they are wont to go,

  And have a builded highway. He becomes

  Mere fool, since energy of mind and soul

  Confounded is, and, as I've shown, to-riven,

  Asunder thrown, and torn to pieces all

  By the same venom. But, again, where cause

  Of that disease has faced about, and back

  Retreats sharp poison of corrupted frame

  Into its shadowy lairs, the man at first

  Arises reeling, and gradually comes back

  To all his senses and recovers soul.

  Thus, since within the body itself of man

  The mind and soul are by such great diseases

  Shaken, so miserably in labour distraught,

  Why, then, believe that in the open air,

  Without a body, they can pass their life,

  Immortal, battling with the master winds?

  And, since we mark the mind itself is cured,

  Like the sick body, and restored can be

  By medicine, this is forewarning to

  That mortal lives the mind. For proper it is

  That whosoe'er begins and undertakes

  To alter the mind, or meditates to change

  Any another nature soever, should add

  New parts, or readjust the order given,

  Or from the sum remove at least a bit.

  But what's immortal willeth for itself

  Its parts be nor increased, nor rearranged,

  Nor any bit soever flow away:

  For change of anything from out its bounds

  Means instant death of that which was before.

  Ergo, the mind, whether in sickness fallen,

  Or by the medicine restored, gives signs,

  As I have taught, of its mortality.

  So surely will a fact of truth make head

  'Gainst errors' theories all, and so shut off

  All refuge from the adversary, and rout

  Error by two-edged confutation.

    And since the mind is of a man one part,

  Which in one fixed place remains, like ears,

  And eyes, and every sense which pilots life;

  And just as hand, or eye, or nose, apart,

  Severed from us, can neither feel nor be,

  But in the least of time is left to rot,

  Thus mind alone can never be, without

  The body and the man himself, which seems,

  As 'twere the vessel of the same - or aught

  Whate'er thou'lt feign as yet more closely joined:

  Since body cleaves to mind by surest bonds.

    Again, the body's and the mind's live powers

  Only in union prosper and enjoy;

  For neither can nature of mind, alone of itself

  Sans body, give the vital motions forth;

  Nor, then, can body, wanting soul, endure

  And use the senses. Verily, as the eye,

  Alone, up-rended from its roots, apart

  From all the body, can peer about at naught,

  So soul and mind it seems are nothing able,

  When by themselves. No marvel, because, commixed

  Through veins and inwards, and through bones and thews,

  Their elements primordial are confined

  By all the body, and own no power free

  To bound around through interspaces big,

  Thus, shut within these confines, they take on

  Motions of sense, which, after death, thrown out

  Beyond the body to the winds of air,

  Take on they cannot - and on this account,

  Because no more in such a way confined.

  For air will be a body, be alive,

  If in that air the soul can keep itself,

  And in that air enclose those motions all

  Which in the thews and in the body itself

  A while ago 'twas making. So for this,

  Again, again, I say confess we must,

  That, when the body's wrappings are unwound,

  And when the vital breath is forced without,

  The soul, the senses of the mind dissolve, -

  Since for the twain the cause and ground of life

  Is in the fact of their conjoined estate.

    Once more, since body's unable to sustain

  Division from the soul, without decay

  And obscene stench, how canst thou doubt but that

  The soul, uprisen from the body's deeps,

  Has filtered away, wide-drifted like a smoke,

  Or that the changed body crumbling fell

  With ruin so entire, because, indeed,

  Its deep foundations have been moved from place,

  The soul out-filtering even through the frame,

  And through the body's every winding way

  And orifice? And so by many means

  Thou'rt free to learn that nature of the soul

  Hath passed in fragments out along the frame,

  And that 'twas shivered in the very body

  Ere ever it slipped abroad and swam away

  Into the winds of air. For never a man

  Dying appears to feel the soul go forth

  As one sure whole from all his body at once,

  Nor first come up the throat and into mouth;

  But feels it failing in a certain spot,

  Even as he knows the senses too dissolve

  Each in its own location in the frame.

  But were this mind of ours immortal mind,

  Dying 'twould scarce bewail a dissolution,

  But rather the going, the leaving of its coat,

  Like to a snake. Wherefore, when once the body

  Hath passed away, admit we must that soul,

  Shivered in all that body, perished too.

  Nay, even when moving in the bounds of life,

  Often the soul, now tottering from some cause,

  Craves to go out, and from the frame entire

  Loosened to be; the countenance becomes

  Flaccid, as if the supreme hour were there;

  And flabbily collapse the members all

  Against the bloodless trunk - the kind of case

  We see when we remark in common phrase,

  "That man's quite gone," or "fainted dead away";

  And where there's now a bustle of alarm,

  And all are eager to get some hold upon

  The man's last link of life. For then the mind

  And all the power of soul are shook so sore,

  And these so totter along with all the frame,

  That any cause a little stronger might

  Dissolve them altogether. - Why, then, doubt

  That soul, when once without the body thrust,

  There in the open, an enfeebled thing,

  Its wrappings stripped away, cannot endure

  Not only through no everlasting age,

  But even, indeed, through not the least of time?

    Then, too, why never is the intellect,

  The counselling mind, begotten in the head,

  The feet, the hands, instead of cleaving still

  To one sole seat, to one fixed haunt, the breast,

  If not that fixed places be assigned

  For each thing's birth, where each, when 'tis create,

  Is able to endure, and that our frames

  Have such complex adjustments that no shift

  In order of our members may appear?

  To that degree effect succeeds to cause,

  Nor is the flame once wont to be create

  In flowing streams, nor cold begot in fire.

    Besides, if nature of soul immortal be,

  And able to feel, when from our frame disjoined,

  The same, I fancy, must be thought to be

  Endowed with senses five, - nor is there way

  But this whereby to image to ourselves

  How under-souls may roam in Acheron.

  Thus painters and the elder race of bards

  Have pictured souls with senses so endowed.

  But neither eyes, nor nose, nor hand, alone

  Apart from body can exist for soul,

  Nor tongue nor ears apart. And hence indeed

  Alone by self they can nor feel nor be.

    And since we mark the vital sense to be

  In the whole body, all one living thing,

  If of a sudden a force with rapid stroke

  Should slice it down the middle and cleave in twain,

  Beyond a doubt likewise the soul itself,

  Divided, dissevered, asunder will be flung

  Along with body. But what severed is

  And into sundry parts divides, indeed

  Admits it owns no everlasting nature.

  We hear how chariots of war, areek

  With hurly slaughter, lop with flashing scythes

  The limbs away so suddenly that there,

  Fallen from the trunk, they quiver on the earth,

  The while the mind and powers of the man

  Can feel no pain, for swiftness of his hurt,

  And sheer abandon in the zest of battle:

  With the remainder of his frame he seeks

  Anew the battle and the slaughter, nor marks

  How the swift wheels and scythes of ravin have dragged

  Off with the horses his left arm and shield;

  Nor other how his right has dropped away,

  Mounting again and on. A third attempts

  With leg dismembered to arise and stand,

  Whilst, on the ground hard by, the dying foot

  Twitches its spreading toes. And even the head,

  When from the warm and living trunk lopped off,

  Keeps on the ground the vital countenance

  And open eyes, until 't has rendered up

  All remnants of the soul. Nay, once again:

  If, when a serpent's darting forth its tongue,

  And lashing its tail, thou gettest chance to hew

  With axe its length of trunk to many parts,

  Thou'lt see each severed fragment writhing round

  With its fresh wound, and spattering up the sod,

  And there the fore-part seeking with the jaws

  After the hinder, with bite to stop the pain.

  So shall we say that these be souls entire

  In all those fractions? - but from that 'twould follow

  One creature'd have in body many souls.

  Therefore, the soul, which was indeed but one,

  Has been divided with the body too:

  Each is but mortal, since alike is each

  Hewn into many parts. Again, how often

  We view our fellow going by degrees,

  And losing limb by limb the vital sense;

  First nails and fingers of the feet turn blue,

  Next die the feet and legs, then o'er the rest

  Slow crawl the certain footsteps of cold death.

  And since this nature of the soul is torn,

  Nor mounts away, as at one time, entire,

  We needs must hold it mortal. But perchance

  If thou supposest that the soul itself

  Can inward draw along the frame, and bring

  Its parts together to one place, and so

  From all the members draw the sense away,

  Why, then, that place in which such stock of soul

  Collected is, should greater seem in sense.

  But since such place is nowhere, for a fact,

  As said before, 'tis rent and scattered forth,

  And so goes under. Or again, if now

  I please to grant the false, and say that soul

  Can thus be lumped within the frames of those

  Who leave the sunshine, dying bit by bit,

  Still must the soul as mortal be confessed;

  Nor aught it matters whether to wrack it go,

  Dispersed in the winds, or, gathered in a mass

  From all its parts, sink down to brutish death,

  Since more and more in every region sense

  Fails the whole man, and less and less of life

  In every region lingers.

                           And besides,

  If soul immortal is, and winds its way

  Into the body at the birth of man,

  Why can we not remember something, then,

  Of life-time spent before? why keep we not

  Some footprints of the things we did of, old?

  But if so changed hath been the power of mind,

  That every recollection of things done

  Is fallen away, at no o'erlong remove

  Is that, I trow, from what we mean by death.

  Wherefore 'tis sure that what hath been before

  Hath died, and what now is is now create.

    Moreover, if after the body hath been built

  Our mind's live powers are wont to be put in,

  Just at the moment that we come to birth,

  And cross the sills of life, 'twould scarcely fit

  For them to live as if they seemed to grow

  Along with limbs and frame, even in the blood,

  But rather as in a cavern all alone.

  (Yet all the body duly throngs with sense.)

  But public fact declares against all this:

  For soul is so entwined through the veins,

  The flesh, the thews, the bones, that even the teeth

  Share in sensation, as proven by dull ache,

  By twinge from icy water, or grating crunch

  Upon a stone that got in mouth with bread.

  Wherefore, again, again, souls must be thought

  Nor void of birth, nor free from law of death;

  Nor, if, from outward, in they wound their way,

  Could they be thought as able so to cleave

  To these our frames, nor, since so interwove,

  Appears it that they're able to go forth

  Unhurt and whole and loose themselves unscathed

  From all the thews, articulations, bones.

  But, if perchance thou thinkest that the soul,

  From outward winding in its way, is wont

  To seep and soak along these members ours,

  Then all the more 'twill perish, being thus

  With body fused - for what will seep and soak

  Will be dissolved and will therefore die.

  For just as food, dispersed through all the pores

  Of body, and passed through limbs and all the frame,

  Perishes, supplying from itself the stuff

  For other nature, thus the soul and mind,

  Though whole and new into a body going,

  Are yet, by seeping in, dissolved away,

  Whilst, as through pores, to all the frame there pass

  Those particles from which created is

  This nature of mind, now ruler of our body,

  Born from that soul which perished, when divided

  Along the frame. Wherefore it seems that soul

  Hath both a natal and funeral hour.

    Besides are seeds of soul there left behind

  In the breathless body, or not? If there they are,

  It cannot justly be immortal deemed,

  Since, shorn of some parts lost, 'thas gone away:

  But if, borne off with members uncorrupt,

  'Thas fled so absolutely all away

  It leaves not one remainder of itself

  Behind in body, whence do cadavers, then,

  From out their putrid flesh exhale the worms,

  And whence does such a mass of living things,

  Boneless and bloodless, o'er the bloated frame

  Bubble and swarm? But if perchance thou thinkest

  That souls from outward into worms can wind,

  And each into a separate body come,

  And reckonest not why many thousand souls

  Collect where only one has gone away,

  Here is a point, in sooth, that seems to need

  Inquiry and a putting to the test:

  Whether the souls go on a hunt for seeds

  Of worms wherewith to build their dwelling places,

  Or enter bodies ready-made, as 'twere.

  But why themselves they thus should do and toil

  'Tis hard to say, since, being free of body,

  They flit around, harassed by no disease,

  Nor cold nor famine; for the body labours

  By more of kinship to these flaws of life,

  And mind by contact with that body suffers

  So many ills. But grant it be for them

  However useful to construct a body

  To which to enter in, 'tis plain they can't.

  Then, souls for self no frames nor bodies make,

  Nor is there how they once might enter in

  To bodies ready-made - for they cannot

  Be nicely interwoven with the same,

  And there'll be formed no interplay of sense

  Common to each.

                     Again, why is't there goes

  Impetuous rage with lion's breed morose,

  And cunning with foxes, and to deer why given

  The ancestral fear and tendency to flee,

  And why in short do all the rest of traits

  Engender from the very start of life

  In the members and mentality, if not

  Because one certain power of mind that came

  From its own seed and breed waxes the same

  Along with all the body? But were mind

  Immortal, were it wont to change its bodies,

  How topsy-turvy would earth's creatures act!

  The Hyrcan hound would flee the onset oft

  Of antlered stag, the scurrying hawk would quake

  Along the winds of air at the coming dove,

  And men would dote, and savage beasts be wise;

  For false the reasoning of those that say

  Immortal mind is changed by change of body -

  For what is changed dissolves, and therefore dies.

  For parts are re-disposed and leave their order;

  Wherefore they must be also capable

  Of dissolution through the frame at last,

  That they along with body perish all.

  But should some say that always souls of men

  Go into human bodies, I will ask:

  How can a wise become a dullard soul?

  And why is never a child's a prudent soul?

  And the mare's filly why not trained so well

  As sturdy strength of steed? We may be sure

  They'll take their refuge in the thought that mind

  Becomes a weakling in a weakling frame.

  Yet be this so, 'tis needful to confess

  The soul but mortal, since, so altered now

  Throughout the frame, it loses the life and sense

  It had before. Or how can mind wax strong

  Co-equally with body and attain

  The craved flower of life, unless it be

  The body's colleague in its origins?

  Or what's the purport of its going forth

  From aged limbs? - fears it, perhaps, to stay,

  Pent in a crumbled body? Or lest its house,

  Outworn by venerable length of days,

  May topple down upon it? But indeed

  For an immortal, perils are there none.

    Again, at parturitions of the wild

  And at the rites of Love, that souls should stand

  Ready hard by seems ludicrous enough -

  Immortals waiting for their mortal limbs

  In numbers innumerable, contending madly

  Which shall be first and chief to enter in! -

  Unless perchance among the souls there be

  Such treaties stablished that the first to come

  Flying along, shall enter in the first,

  And that they make no rivalries of strength!

    Again, in ether can't exist a tree,

  Nor clouds in ocean deeps, nor in the fields

  Can fishes live, nor blood in timber be,

  Nor sap in boulders: fixed and arranged

  Where everything may grow and have its place.

  Thus nature of mind cannot arise alone

  Without the body, nor exist afar

  From thews and blood. But if 'twere possible,

  Much rather might this very power of mind

  Be in the head, the shoulders or the heels,

  And, born in any part soever, yet

  In the same man, in the same vessel abide.

  But since within this body even of ours

  Stands fixed and appears arranged sure

  Where soul and mind can each exist and grow,

  Deny we must the more that they can have

  Duration and birth, wholly outside the frame.

  For, verily, the mortal to conjoin

  With the eternal, and to feign they feel

  Together, and can function each with each,

  Is but to dote: for what can be conceived

  Of more unlike, discrepant, ill-assorted,

  Than something mortal in a union joined

  With an immortal and a secular

  To bear the outrageous tempests?

                              Then, again,

  Whatever abides eternal must indeed

  Either repel all strokes, because 'tis made

  Of solid body, and permit no entrance

  Of aught with power to sunder from within

  The parts compact - as are those seeds of stuff

  Whose nature we've exhibited before;

  Or else be able to endure through time

  For this: because they are from blows exempt,

  As is the void, the which abides untouched,

  Unsmit by any stroke; or else because

  There is no room around, whereto things can,

  As 'twere, depart in dissolution all, -

  Even as the sum of sums eternal is,

  Without or place beyond whereto things may

  Asunder fly, or bodies which can smite,

  And thus dissolve them by the blows of might.

    But if perchance the soul's to be adjudged

  Immortal, mainly on ground 'tis kept secure

  In vital forces - either because there come

  Never at all things hostile to its weal,

  Or else because what come somehow retire,

  Repelled or ere we feel the harm they work,

  For, lo, besides that, when the frame's diseased,

  Soul sickens too, there cometh, many a time,

  That which torments it with the things to be,

  Keeps it in dread, and wearies it with cares;

  And even when evil acts are of the past,

  Still gnaw the old transgressions bitterly.

  Add, too, that frenzy, peculiar to the mind,

  And that oblivion of the things that were;

  Add its submergence in the murky waves

  Of drowse and torpor.

              FOLLY OF THE FEAR OF DEATH

                          Therefore death to us

  Is nothing, nor concerns us in the least,

  Since nature of mind is mortal evermore.

  And just as in the ages gone before

  We felt no touch of ill, when all sides round

  To battle came the Carthaginian host,

  And the times, shaken by tumultuous war,

  Under the aery coasts of arching heaven

  Shuddered and trembled, and all humankind

  Doubted to which the empery should fall

  By land and sea, thus when we are no more,

  When comes that sundering of our body and soul

  Through which we're fashioned to a single state,

  Verily naught to us, us then no more,

  Can come to pass, naught move our senses then -

  No, not if earth confounded were with sea,

  And sea with heaven. But if indeed do feel

  The nature of mind and energy of soul,

  After their severance from this body of ours,

  Yet nothing 'tis to us who in the bonds

  And wedlock of the soul and body live,

  Through which we're fashioned to a single state.

  And, even if time collected after death

  The matter of our frames and set it all

  Again in place as now, and if again

  To us the light of life were given, O yet

  That process too would not concern us aught,

  When once the self-succession of our sense

  Has been asunder broken. And now and here,

  Little enough we're busied with the selves

  We were aforetime, nor, concerning them,

  Suffer a sore distress. For shouldst thou gaze

  Backwards across all yesterdays of time

  The immeasurable, thinking how manifold

  The motions of matter are, then couldst thou well

  Credit this too: often these very seeds

  (From which we are to-day) of old were set

  In the same order as they are to-day -

  Yet this we can't to consciousness recall

  Through the remembering mind. For there hath been

  An interposed pause of life, and wide

  Have all the motions wandered everywhere

  From these our senses. For if woe and ail

  Perchance are toward, then the man to whom

  The bane can happen must himself be there

  At that same time. But death precludeth this,

  Forbidding life to him on whom might crowd

  Such irk and care; and granted 'tis to know:

  Nothing for us there is to dread in death,

  No wretchedness for him who is no more,

  The same estate as if ne'er born before,

  When death immortal hath ta'en the mortal life.

    Hence, where thou seest a man to grieve because

  When dead he rots with body laid away,

  Or perishes in flames or jaws of beasts,

  Know well: he rings not true, and that beneath

  Still works an unseen sting upon his heart,

  However he deny that he believes.

  His shall be aught of feeling after death.

  For he, I fancy, grants not what he says,

  Nor what that presupposes, and he fails

  To pluck himself with all his roots from life

  And cast that self away, quite unawares

  Feigning that some remainder's left behind.

  For when in life one pictures to oneself

  His body dead by beasts and vultures torn,

  He pities his state, dividing not himself

  Therefrom, removing not the self enough

  From the body flung away, imagining

  Himself that body, and projecting there

  His own sense, as he stands beside it: hence

  He grieves that he is mortal born, nor marks

  That in true death there is no second self

  Alive and able to sorrow for self destroyed,

  Or stand lamenting that the self lies there

  Mangled or burning. For if it an evil is

  Dead to be jerked about by jaw and fang

  Of the wild brutes, I see not why 'twere not

  Bitter to lie on fires and roast in flames,

  Or suffocate in honey, and, reclined

  On the smooth oblong of an icy slab,

  Grow stiff in cold, or sink with load of earth

  Down-crushing from above.

                              "Thee now no more

  The joyful house and best of wives shall welcome,

  Nor little sons run up to snatch their kisses

  And touch with silent happiness thy heart.

  Thou shalt not speed in undertakings more,

  Nor be the warder of thine own no more.

  Poor wretch," they say, "one hostile hour hath ta'en

  Wretchedly from thee all life's many guerdons,"

  But add not, "yet no longer unto thee

  Remains a remnant of desire for them"

  If this they only well perceived with mind

  And followed up with maxims, they would free

  Their state of man from anguish and from fear.

  "O even as here thou art, aslumber in death,

  So shalt thou slumber down the rest of time,

  Released from every harrying pang. But we,

  We have bewept thee with insatiate woe,

  Standing beside whilst on the awful pyre

  Thou wert made ashes; and no day shall take

  For us the eternal sorrow from the breast."

  But ask the mourner what's the bitterness

  That man should waste in an eternal grief,

  If, after all, the thing's but sleep and rest?

  For when the soul and frame together are sunk

  In slumber, no one then demands his self

  Or being. Well, this sleep may be forever,

  Without desire of any selfhood more,

  For all it matters unto us asleep.

  Yet not at all do those primordial germs

  Roam round our members, at that time, afar

  From their own motions that produce our senses -

  Since, when he's startled from his sleep, a man

  Collects his senses. Death is, then, to us

  Much less - if there can be a less than that

  Which is itself a nothing: for there comes

  Hard upon death a scattering more great

  Of the throng of matter, and no man wakes up

  On whom once falls the icy pause of life.

    This too, O often from the soul men say,

  Along their couches holding of the cups,

  With faces shaded by fresh wreaths awry:

  "Brief is this fruit of joy to paltry man,

  Soon, soon departed, and thereafter, no,

  It may not be recalled." - As if, forsooth,

  It were their prime of evils in great death

  To parch, poor tongues, with thirst and arid drought,

  Or chafe for any lack.

                          Once more, if Nature

  Should of a sudden send a voice abroad,

  And her own self inveigh against us so:

  "Mortal, what hast thou of such grave concern

  That thou indulgest in too sickly plaints?

  Why this bemoaning and beweeping death?

  For if thy life aforetime and behind

  To thee was grateful, and not all thy good

  Was heaped as in sieve to flow away

  And perish unavailingly, why not,

  Even like a banqueter, depart the halls,

  Laden with life? why not with mind content

  Take now, thou fool, thy unafflicted rest?

  But if whatever thou enjoyed hath been

  Lavished and lost, and life is now offence,

  Why seekest more to add - which in its turn

  Will perish foully and fall out in vain?

  O why not rather make an end of life,

  Of labour? For all I may devise or find

  To pleasure thee is nothing: all things are

  The same forever. Though not yet thy body

  Wrinkles with years, nor yet the frame exhausts

  Outworn, still things abide the same, even if

  Thou goest on to conquer all of time

  With length of days, yea, if thou never diest" -

  What were our answer, but that Nature here

  Urges just suit and in her words lays down

  True cause of action? Yet should one complain,

  Riper in years and elder, and lament,

  Poor devil, his death more sorely than is fit,

  Then would she not, with greater right, on him

  Cry out, inveighing with a voice more shrill:

  "Off with thy tears, and choke thy whines, buffoon!

  Thou wrinklest - after thou hast had the sum

  Of the guerdons of life; yet, since thou cravest ever

  What's not at hand, contemning present good,

  That life has slipped away, unperfected

  And unavailing unto thee. And now,

  Or ere thou guessed it, death beside thy head

  Stands - and before thou canst be going home

  Sated and laden with the goodly feast.

  But now yield all that's alien to thine age, -

  Up, with good grace! make room for sons: thou must."

  Justly, I fancy, would she reason thus,

  Justly inveigh and gird: since ever the old

  Outcrowded by the new gives way, and ever

  The one thing from the others is repaired.

  Nor no man is consigned to the abyss

  Of Tartarus, the black. For stuff must be,

  That thus the after-generations grow, -

  Though these, their life completed, follow thee;

  And thus like thee are generations all -

  Already fallen, or some time to fall.

  So one thing from another rises ever;

  And in fee-simple life is given to none,

  But unto all mere usufruct.

                               Look back:

  Nothing to us was all fore-passed eld

  Of time the eternal, ere we had a birth.

  And Nature holds this like a mirror up

  Of time-to-be when we are dead and gone.

  And what is there so horrible appears?

  Now what is there so sad about it all?

  Is't not serener far than any sleep?

    And, verily, those tortures said to be

  In Acheron, the deep, they all are ours

  Here in this life. No Tantalus, benumbed

  With baseless terror, as the fables tell,

  Fears the huge boulder hanging in the air:

  But, rather, in life an empty dread of gods

  Urges mortality, and each one fears

  Such fall of fortune as may chance to him.

  Nor eat the vultures into Tityus

  Prostrate in Acheron, nor can they find,

  Forsooth, throughout eternal ages, aught

  To pry around for in that mighty breast.

  However hugely he extend his bulk -

  Who hath for outspread limbs not acres nine,

  But the whole earth - he shall not able be

  To bear eternal pain nor furnish food

  From his own frame forever. But for us

  A Tityus is he whom vultures rend

  Prostrate in love, whom anxious anguish eats,

  Whom troubles of any unappeased desires

  Asunder rip. We have before our eyes

  Here in this life also a Sisyphus

  In him who seeketh of the populace

  The rods, the axes fell, and evermore

  Retires a beaten and a gloomy man.

  For to seek after power - an empty name,

  Nor given at all - and ever in the search

  To endure a world of toil, O this it is

  To shove with shoulder up the hill a stone

  Which yet comes rolling back from off the top,

  And headlong makes for levels of the plain.

  Then to be always feeding an ingrate mind,

  Filling with good things, satisfying never -